Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 
in  2018  with  funding  from 
Getty  Research  Institute 


https://archive.org/details/indianvillagesitOOhoot 


PEABODY  MUSEUM 


OF 

AMERICAN  ARCHAEOLOGY  AND  ETHNOLOGY 
HARVARD  UNIVERSITY 


PAPERS 

VOLUME  VIII 


CAMBRIDGE,  MASSACHUSETTS,  U.S.A. 
PUBLISHED  BY  THE  MUSEUM 
1920-1921-1922 


CONTENTS  OF  VOLUME  VIII 


NUMBER  I 

Indian  Village  Site  and  Cemetery  near  Madisonville 

Ohio 

By  earnest  a.  hooton 
With  Notes  on  the  Artifacts 

By  CHARLES  C.  WILLOUGHBY 


NUMBER  2 

Basket-maker  Caves  of  Northeastern  Arizona 

By  SAMUEL  J.  GUERNSEY  AND  ALFRED  V.  KIDDER 


NUMBER  3 

The  Turner  Group  of  Earthworks,  Hamilton  County 

Ohio 

By  CHARLES  C.  WILLOUGHBY 

With  Notes  on  the  Skeletal  Remains 

By  EARNEST  A.  HOOTON 


PAPERS 


OF  THE 

PEABODY  MUSEUM  OF  AMERICAN  ARCHAEOLOGY 
AND  ETHNOLOGY,  HARVARD  UNIVERSITY 

Vol.  VIII.  — No.  1 

INDIAN  VILLAGE  SITE  AND 
CEMETERY  NEAR  MADISONVILLE 

OHIO 


BY 

EARNEST  A.  IIOOTON 


WITH  NOTES  ON  THE  ARTIFACTS  BY 

CHARLES  C.  WILLOUGHBY 


THIRTY  PLATES  AND  FIVE  ILLUSTRATIONS  IN  THE  TEXT 


Cambridge,  Mass. 


PAPERS 


OF  THE 

PEABODY  MUSEUM  OF  AMERICAN  ARCHAEOLOGY 
AND  ETHNOLOGY,  HARVARD  UNIVERSITY 

Vol.  VIII. —  No.  1 

INDIAN  VILLAGE  SITE  AND 
CEMETERY  NEAR  MADISONVILLE 

OHIO 

BY 

EARNEST  A.  HOOTON 

WITH  NOTES  ON  THE  ARTIFACTS  BY 

CHARLES  C.  WILLOUGHBY 


THIRTY  PLATES  AND  FIVE  ILLUSTRATIONS  IN  THE  TEXT 


Cambridge,  Mass. 
Published  by  the  Museum 
1920 


COPYRIGHT,  1920 

BY  THE  PEABODY  MUSEUM  OF  AMERICAN  ARCHAEOLOGY 
AND  ETHNOLOGY,  HARVARD  UNIVERSITY 


NOTE 


The  explorations  which  form  the  basis  of  the  following 
paper  were  carried  on  intermittently  under  the  auspices  of 
the  Peabody  Museum  from  1882  to  1911.  During  this  period, 
Dr.  Charles  L.  Metz  of  Madisonville,  the  discoverer  of  the 
site,  had  general  supervision  of  the  work. 

By  the  terms  of  the  will  of  Miss  Phoebe  Ferris,  the  late 
owner  of  the  land  upon  which  the  cemetery  is  situated,  the 
right  to  complete  the  explorations  after  her  death  in  1897 
was  granted  the  Museum,  and  the  work  was  then  carried  on 
principally  by  students  in  the  Division  of  Anthropology, 
connected  with  the  Museum,  under  the  general  oversight  of 
Dr.  Metz. 

The  extensive  collections  of  skeletal  remains  and  artifacts, 
and  more  than  two  hundred  and  fifty  photographs  taken 
during  the  investigations  are  in  the  Museum. 

It  is  hoped  that  the  study  of  these  remains  as  set  forth  in 
the  following  pages  will  prove  of  special  value  to  students  of 
the  archaeology  of  the  Ohio  region,  as  it  connects  the  culture 
of  the  occupants  of  this  site  definitely  with  the  protohistoric 
and  late  prehistoric  period  of  the  valley. 


Cambridge,  Massachusetts 
July  7,  1920 


CONTENTS 


THE  DISCOVERY  OF  THE  SITE  AND  HISTORY  OF 
THE  EXPLORATIONS 

PAGE 

The  Discovery .  1 

Excavations  by  C.  L.  Metz  .  3 

Excavations  by  F.  W.  Putnam .  5 

Excavations  by  J.  R.  Swanton .  6 

Excavations  by  R.  E.  Merwin .  7 

Excavations  by  B.  W.  Merwin .  9 

THE  BURIALS 

Depth  of  Interments .  10 

Forms  of  Burial  .  11 

Horizontal  or  Extended  Burials .  11 

Contracted  Burials .  11 

Burials  in  Sitting  Posture .  11 

Collective  and  Disturbed  Burials .  12 

Burials  in  Cache-pits .  12 

Anomalous  Burials .  13 

Grouping  of  Burials .  14 

Orientation  of  Burials .  15 

Objects  Associated  with  Burials .  16 

Burials  of  Special  Interest .  19 

Total  Number  of  Burials  .  20 

Death  Rate  as  Indicated  by  Burials . .  .  20 

Population,  and  Period  of  Use  of  Cemetery  .  23 

THE  CACHE-PITS 

Their  Discovery .  27 

Number  and  Depth . 28 

Contents  and  Stratification . 29 

Fauna  Represented  in  the  Pits .  32 

Artifacts  from  the  Pits  .  33 

Form  of  the  Pits .  35 

Grouping  in  Relation  to  Burials  .  36 

Their  Purpose .  36 

V 


VI 


CONTENTS 


HEARTHS  AND  OTHER  REMAINS 

Hearths  and  Fireplaces .  40 

Post-holes .  42 

Kitchen-middens .  42 

House  Circles  .  44 

ARTIFACTS  FROM  THE  SITE 

General  Distribution  of  Types .  47 

Knives  and  Projectile  Points .  47 

Arrowmaker’s  Tools .  49 

Arrowpoints .  51 

Flint  Drills .  52 

Skin-dressing  Tools .  53 

Grooveless  Stone  Axes .  55 

Stone  Adze  Blades .  56 

Anvils,  Hammer-stones  and  Grinding  Stones .  56 

Fishing  Implements .  58 

Awls  and  Needles .  58 

Antler  Blades  .  59 

Beaver  Tooth  Chisels .  61 

Musical  Instruments .  62 

Personal  Ornaments  of  Shell .  63 

Implements  and  Utensils  of  Shell .  65 

Combs  and  Personal  Ornaments  of  Bone  and  Antler .  67 

Personal  Ornaments  of  Copper .  69 

Personal  Ornaments  of  Brass .  71 

Iron  Objects .  72 

Glass  Beads .  73 

Tobacco  Pipes . . .  73 

Incised  Drawings,  etc .  75 

Textile  Fabrics  and  Wooden  Utensils .  77 

Pottery  . .  78 

THE  SKELETAL  REMAINS 

Collection  in  General .  83 

Cranial  Deformation .  85 

Cranial  Vault  Indices .  86 

Cranial  Arcs .  92 

Cranial  Capacity .  93 

Thickness  of  Left  Parietal  above  Temporo-parietal  Suture  ....  93 

Minimum  Frontal  Diameter .  93 

Facial  Index .  94 

Mean  Orbital  Index .  95 


CONTENTS 


vii 

Nasal  Index .  95 

Palatal  Index .  96 

Alveolar  Index .  96 

Angles  Relating  to  Prognathism  .  97 

Foramen  Magnum .  97 

Lower  Jaw .  98 

Frontal  Region .  98 

Sagittal  Region .  99 

Temporal  Region . 100 

Occipital  Region . 100 

Sutures . 101 

Parietal  Foramina  . 102 

Retro-mastoid  Foramina . 103 

Mastoids  . 103 

Facial  Portion .  103 

Teeth . 107 

Palate . 110 

Skull  Base . 110 

Mandible . 113 

Pathological  Features . •. . 114 

Summary  of  Measurements  and  Observations  upon  the  Crania  .  .  115 

The  Bones  in  General .  121 

Femur . 122 

Tibia . 126 

Fibula . 128 

Humerus  . 128 

Radius  . 129 

Ulna . : . 130 

Pelvis . 130 

Pathology . 130 

General  Summary  of  Observations . 133 

CONCLUSION 

Period  of  Occupation  of  the  Site . 135 

Relation  of  the  Madisonville  Culture  to  that  of  Surrounding  Tribes  135 
Physical  Relation  of  the  Inhabitants  to  the  Neighboring  People  .  .  137 


INDIAN  VILLAGE  SITE  AND  CEMETERY 
NEAR  MADISON VILLE ,  OHIO 


THE  DISCOVERY  OF  THE  SITE  AND  HISTORY 
OF  THE  EXPLORATIONS 

The  Discovery.  The  discoverer  of  the  important  Indian  village 
site  and  cemetery  near  Madisonville,  Ohio,  was  Dr.  Charles  L. 
Metz,  a  resident  of  Madisonville,  physician  by  profession,  archae¬ 
ologist  by  avocation. 

Prior  to  his  explorations  of  the  site,  Dr.  Metz  published  a  paper 
on  the  prehistoric  monuments  of  the  Little  Miami  Valley  in  which 
he  described  and  located  on  a  chart  the  principal  earthworks  and 
mounds  in  Columbia,  Anderson,  and  Spencer  townships,  near  the 
Little  Miami  River.1  Group  A  of  Dr.  Metz’s  classification  in¬ 
cludes  the  site  of  the  prehistoric  cemetery  and  the  neighboring 
monuments.  He  describes  it  as  follows : 2 

Group  A  is  situated  partly  in  section  9,  and  partly  in  section  15,  Columbia 
township,  Hamilton  County,  Ohio,  one  mile  west  of  Plainville  station  on  the 
Little  Miami  Railroad,  and  on  the  second  bottom  or  plateau  of  the  Little 
Miami  River  on  a  narrow  sandy  ridge  of  reddish  color. 

This  ridge  has  an  elevation,  averaging  from  10  to  25  feet  above  the  general 
level  of  the  plateau  on  which  it  is  situated.  It  lies  between  the  Wooster  Turn¬ 
pike  and  the  Little  Miami  Railroad  and  River,  elevated  about  200  feet  above 
the  latter.  On  this  ridge  the  principal  work  of  this  group  is  situated. 

Commencing  at  the  east  end  of  the  ridge,  and  in  a  wood  known  as  “  Stites 
Grove  ”  we  find  an  earthwork  consisting  of  a  circle,  central  tumulus,  and  an 
oval-shaped  tumulus  impinging  on  the  outer  southeast  edge  of  the  circle.3 

West  and  to  the  south  of  this  tumulus,  and  on  the  same  continuous  sand 
ridge  mentioned  above,  are  four  or  five  elevations  or  tumuli  with  an  average 
height  of  three  to  four  feet,  being  from  two  to  three  hundred  feet  apart.  The 
ridge  is  here  under  cultivation;  numbers  of  relics,  flint  chips,  and  broken 
bowlders  are  ploughed  up  on  this  ridge. 

1  Charles  L.  Metz,  M.D.,  The  Prehistoric  Monuments  of  the  Little  Miami  Valley,  Journal  of 
■the  Cincinnati  Society  of  Natural  History,  vol.  i,  no.  3,  October,  1878,  p.  119  et  seq. 

2  Op.  cit.,  loc.  cit. 

3  Here  Dr.  Metz  quotes  the  description  and  account  of  the  excavation  of  this  work  by 
Florien  Giauque,  The  Mound  Builders,  Harvest  Home  Magazine,  August,  1876. 

1 


/ 


2 


INDIAN  VILLAGE  SITE  AND  CEMETERY 


Northwest  of  these  tumuli,  and  on  the  general  level  of  the  plateau,  one- 
fourth  mile  distant,  is  a  mound  which  has  a  circumference  at  the  base  of  200 
feet,  and  an  elevation  of  7  feet;  it  is  as  yet  unexplored,  but  cultivated  annually. 

Four  hundred  yards  to  the  northeast  of  this  mound,  and  at  the  junction  of 
the  Wooster  and  Madison  turnpikes,  can  yet  be  traced  a  circular  work,  which 
has  a  circumference  of  600  feet.  .  .  . 

Continuing  on  to  the  southwestward  of  the  small  tumuli  and  along  the  previously 
described  sand  ridge,  we  come  to  what  is  known  as  the  “  Pottery  Field.”  Here  the 
ridge  slopes  gently  to  the  south  and  southeast,  with  an  elevation  of  from  60  to  80 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  Little  Miami  River.  This  field  is  a  plateau  of  about  four 
acres  in  extent,  sloping  back  to  the  higher  ground.  On  this  plateau  fragments  of 
pottery  are  found  in  great  abundance.  Flint  chips,  arrowpoints,  broken  bowlders, 
burnt  limestone,  and  shells  of  the  freshwater  mussels  ( Unio)  are  found  all  over 
the  surface.  Human  remains  have  been  found  in  the  adjoining  ravines,  and  on  the 
slopes;  the  graves  were  isolated  and  shallow,  and  the  method  of  burial  was  not 
uniform.  Bones  of  various  wild  animals  are  also  found. 

Two  hundred  yards  north  of  the  pottery  field  are  several  small  tumuli;  the 
largest  has  a  circumference  at  base  of  about  100  feet,  height  5§  feet;  this 
mound  has  been  dug  into,  but  not  yet  explored.  The  pottery  field  and  also 
the  tumulus  are  situated  in  section  9,  Columbia  township,  in  what  is  known 
as  Ferris  Woods,  in  Still  Home  Hollow. 

The  pottery  field  above  described  was  the  site  of  the  cemetery 
later  discovered  by  Dr.  Metz.  The  circumstances  of  the  discovery 
are  as  follows.  During  the  fall  and  winter  of  1878-79,  Dr.  Metz 
explored  several  of  the  mounds  of  Group  A,  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
cemetery  site.1 

During  the  progress  of  the  work  on  this  mound  [5,  Group  A]  the  laborer, 
employed  by  Dr.  Metz,  had  been  prospecting  by  digging  holes  in  the  sur¬ 
rounding  forest,  until  finally,  on  the  20th  of  March,  in  the  southwestern  sec¬ 
tion  of  the  plateau,  he  came  upon  a  human  skeleton  at  the  depth  of  about 
two  feet;  these  remains  were,  however,  so  much  decayed  that  they  could  be 
preserved  only  in  fragments.  This  was  the  initiatory  step  toward  a  most  im¬ 
portant  archaeological  discovery,  as  further  investigation  has  revealed  the 
interesting  fact  that  the  entire  plateau  is  the  site  of  an  ancient  cemetery,  from 
which  have  since  been  exhumed  upward  of  four  hundred  skeletons  of  a  pre¬ 
historic  people,  accompanied  by  numerous  evidences  of  their  handiwork,  in 
the  shape  of  flint  and  stone  implements,  pipes,  pottery  ware,  charred  matting 
and  corn,  tools  and  ornaments  of  bone,  shell,  and  copper,  some  of  which  are 
believed  to  be  unique,  all  indicating  an  industrious  people,  who  lived  in  large 
communities,  and  obtained  their  support  by  cultivating  the  soil,  as  well  as  by 
fishing  and  hunting.2 

1  Charles  F.  Low,  Archaeological  Explorations  near  Madisonville,  Ohio,  Journal  of  the  Cin¬ 
cinnati  Society  of  Natural  History,  vol.  iii,  no.  1,  April,  1880,  p.  40  et  seq.  (Gives  an  account 
of  the  excavation  of  the  mounds.  See  also  American  Naturalist,  May,  1879,  p.  328.) 

2  Op.  cit.,  p.  43. 


NEAR  MADISONVILLE,  OHIO 


3 


The  above  account  corresponds  accurately  with  the  data  in 
Dr,  Metz’s  field  notes,  in  which  the  following  entries  relative  to 
the  discovery  occur : 1 

March  16,  1879.  Britten  [the  laborer]  began  digging  trenches  4  ft.  square 
and  3  ft.  deep  and  200  ft.  apart,  beginning  at  the  Spice  Bush  Mound  (No.  5), 
and  extending  in  a  southwestern  direction  to  the  point  of  the  second  plain.  .  .  . 

March  20.  Britten  dug  3  pits  today,  the  last  one  on  the  southwestern  point 
of  the  plateau.  Just  before  quitting  work  he  found  a  skeleton  at  the  depth  of 
2  ft. 

A  brief  sketch  of  the  discovery  was  contributed  also  to  Short’s 
The  North  Americans  of  Antiquity,  published  in  1879.  This  ac¬ 
count  is  quoted  by  Low  as  follows : 2 

This  cemetery,  which  is  distant  about  one  and  one-half  miles  southeast 
from  Madisonville,  occupies  the  western  extremity  of  a  plateau  overlooking 
the  Little  Miami  River,  and  situated  from  eighty  to  one  hundred  feet  above 
the  water-line.  It  is  bounded  on  the  south  by  the  river  “  bottom,”  on  the 
north  and  west  by  a  deep  ravine,  through  which  flows  a  small  stream  known 
as  Whiskey  Run;  on  the  east  the  plateau  slopes  gradually  up  to  the  general 
level  of  the  surrounding  country,  of  which  it  is  in  fact  a  continuation  or  spur, 
its  character  of  an  elevated  plateau  being  derived  from  its  position  between 
the  eroded  river  valley  and  the  deep  ravine  above  referred  to.  The  precipitous 
but  well  wooded  bluff  which  forms  the  southern  limit  of  this  plateau  extends 
eastward,  facing  the  river,  for  perhaps  half  a  mile;  and  distributed  along  its 
edge  are  a  number  of  mounds  and  other  earthworks;  at  its  base  are  the  Cincin¬ 
nati  and  Eastern  and  Little  Miami  Railways,  the  nearest  station  being  Batavia 
Junction,  distant  about  half  a  mile  east  of  the  cemetery.  The  original  forest 
still  covers  the  site  of  the  cemetery,  and  measurements  of  some  of  the  principal 
trees  are  recorded  by  Dr.  Metz.  The  locality  has  long  been  known  to  local 
collectors  and  others  interested  in  archaeological  matters  as  the  “  Pottery 
Field,”  so  called  on  account  of  the  numerous  fragments  of  earthenware  strewn 
over  the  surface;  and  it  was  until  recently  supposed  to  be  a  place  where  the 
manufacture  of  pottery  had  been  carried  on  by  the  ancient  inhabitants  of  the 
valley,  the  fragments  being  considered  the  debris.  A  few  scattered  human 
remains  had  also  been  found  in  the  adjoining  ravines,  but  it  was  not  until 
some  time  in  March,  1879,  that  its  true  character  and  extent  as  a  cemetery 
were  brought  to  light. 

Excavations  by  Dr.  Charles  L.  Metz.  The  excavation  of  the 
Madisonville  cemetery  was  begun  by  Dr.  Metz  on  March  20, 

1  Charles  L.  Metz,  Superintendent  of  Explorations,  Field  Notes,  1878-1882,  Archaeological 
Explorations  by  the  Literary  and  Scientific  Society  of  Madisonville,  O.  {Ms.  book  I,  p.  4.) 
These  notes  are  deposited  in  the  Peabody  Museum. 

1  Op.  cit.,  p.  43  et  seq.  quoting,  J.  T.  Short,  North  Americans  of  Antiquity.  New  York,  1879, 
pp.  524-525. 


4 


INDIAN  VILLAGE  SITE  AND  CEMETERY 


1879.  The  point  at  which  his  laborer  came  upon  the  cemetery 
was  at  the  southwestern  corner  of  the  plateau  bounded  on  the 
west  by  the  valley  of  the  little  stream  called  Whiskey  Run,  and  on 
the  south  by  the  bottom  lands  of  the  Little  Miami  River.  From 
this  point,  Dr.  Metz  began  to  trench  eastward  along  the  edge  of 
the  plateau  and  his  labors  were  quickly  rewarded  by  the  finding  of 
numerous  and  thickly  grouped  burials.  On  the  first  of  April  the 
Madisonville  Literary  and  Historical  Society  took  charge  of  the 
work,  with  Dr.  Metz  as  superintendent  of  excavations.  Successful 
explorations  were  conducted  on  the  southwestern  slope  until 
June  23,  when  in  accordance  with  instructions  from  the  society, 
work  was  begun  on  the  Stites  property  known  as  “  Spice  Bush 
Woods.”  This  tract  of  land  was  on  the  eastern  portion  of  the 
same  plateau  on  which  the  cemetery  was  located.  During  the 
next  two  weeks  Mound  8  in  the  Spice  Bush  Woods  was  explored 
and  four  hut  circles  were  trenched.  Further  excavations  yielded 
but  meager  results;  and  on  the  7th  of  July  work  was  resumed  in 
the  old  trenches  of  the  cemetery  on  the  Ferris  property,  and  car¬ 
ried  on  steadily  with  abundant  results  up  to  the  end  of  the  year. 
During  this  year’s  work  360  skeletons  were  exhumed  and  176  cache- 
pits  explored;  only  31  of  these  burials  and  16  of  the  cache-pits  are 
plotted  upon  the  plan  (plate  30).  About  140  earthenware  pots 
and  many  other  specimens  were  discovered.  Toward  the  end  of 
the  year,  Dr.  Metz  inaugurated  the  system  of  dividing  the  areas 
to  be  explored  into  blocks  approximately  40  feet  square.  The 
boundaries  of  the  blocks  were  usually  determined  by  trees  en¬ 
closing  roughly  square  or  rectangular  spaces,  and  the  burials  wrere 
located  with  reference  to  one  or  other  of  these  corner  trees  or 
other  prominent  trees  within  the  blocks.  All  of  the  excavations 
prior  to  the  inception  of  this  system  were  lumped  together  into 
one  large  block.  As  early  as  April  12  of  the  first  season,  the 
ground  had  been  staked  off  by  Mr.  Low  and  the  principal  features 
sketched.  As  the  excavations  in  the  successive  blocks  progressed, 
it  is  presumed  that  the  burials  were  plotted  on  maps,  but  these 
maps  are  not  in  the  possession  of  the  Peabody  Museum,  nor  has 
the  present  writer  been  able  to  consult  them. 

Throughout  the  succeeding  year  (1880)  excavations  were  con¬ 
tinued  in  the  cemetery  up  to  the  18th  of  December,  when  the  ex¬ 
ploration  of  Block  12  was  completed,  the  local  society  having 


NEAR  MADISONVILLE,  OHIO 


5 


been  aided  by  an  appropriation  from  the  Cincinnati  Society  of 
Natural  History.  During  this  year  239  skeletons  were  exhumed, 
170  cache-pits  examined,  and  over  75  earthenware  pots  recovered. 
Such  of  the  burials  and  cache-pits  as  could  be  plotted  with  a  fair 
degree  of  accuracy  are  shown  in  the  plan  (plate  30,  n).  A  good 
deal  of  work  was  also  done  in  two  kitchen-middens  discovered  at 
the  heads  of  ravines,  one  on  the  western  slope  of  the  plateau,  the 
other  on  the  western  slope  of  the  gully  which  divides  the  southern 
portion  of  the  plateau,  running  north  from  its  edge. 

Dr.  Metz’s  work,  in  1881,  was  commenced  on  the  second  of 
March  and  continued  to  August  13,  when  the  entries  in  his  field 
note-book  leave  off.  Block  17  was  completed  and  58  skeletons 
and  some  84  cache-pits  were  discovered. 

Professor  F.  W.  Putnam  visited  the  site  in  July  of  this  year  and 
again  in  September,  at  which  time  he  made  arrangements  with  the 
Madisonville  Literary  and  Scientific  Society,  by  which  the  Pea¬ 
body  Museum,  by  paying  a  portion  of  the  expenses  of  exploration, 
would  receive  its  share  of  all  that  was  obtained  as  the  work  of  ex¬ 
cavation  progressed.  Work  was  continued  by  Dr.  Metz  during; 
the  fall,  and  in  February,  1882,  Professor  Putnam  wrote  in  his 
report  on  the  Museum: 

We  have  already  received  the  first  instalment  of  the  material  obtained 
since  the  cooperation  of  the  Museum,  and  information  that  a  second  lot  has 
been  forwarded  to  the  Museum.  Our  connection  with  this  work  has  also  re¬ 
sulted  in  the  presentation  of  many  specimens  by  those  who  have  heretofore 
sustained  the  principal  cost  of  the  explorations,  as  will  be  seen  by  a  reference 
to  the  list  of  additions  over  the  names  of  Messrs.  C.  F.  Low,  P.  P.  Lane,  C.  L. 
Metz,  and  E.  A.  Conkling,1 

Excavations  by  Professor  F.  W.  Putnam.  Professor  Putnam 
again  visited  the  cemetery  from  May  2  to  May  16,  1882,  during 
which  time  the  “  Putnam  Block  ”  was  excavated  for  the  Museum. 
There  is  deposited  in  the  Museum  a  small  sketch  map  of  this 
block,  apparently  made  by  Dr.  Metz,  and  the  note-book  in  which 
Professor  Putnam  recorded  the  excavations.  This  block  yielded 
8  skeletons  and  several  cache-pits  and  was  located  near  the 
eastern  line  of  the  Ferris  property  (plate  30,  1).  During  this  visit 
four  of  the  large  hut  circles  on  the  Stites  property  northeast  of 
Ferris  Wood  were  explored  also. 


1  Peabody  Museum  Reports,  vol.  iii,  p.  67. 


6 


INDIAN  VILLAGE  SITE  AND  CEMETERY 


Excavations  were  not  carried  on  in  the  cemetery  except  sporadi¬ 
cally  for  some  time  after  Professor  Putnam’s  visit,  since  he  and  Dr. 
Metz  began  explorations  elsewhere  in  Ohio  which  continued  over 
a  period  of  several  years.  In  1891,  when  Professor  Putnam  was 
Chief  of  the  Anthropological  Department  of  the  Chicago  Exposi¬ 
tion,  work  was  again  resumed  at  the  Madisonville  site  under  the 
charge  of  Dr.  Metz,  with  Harlan  I.  Smith  as  assistant,  and 
Block  M  was  excavated  on  the  Stites  property  for  this  Department. 

Early  in  1897  the  Museum  received  notice  from  Dr.  Metz  that 

Miss  Phebe  Ferris  of  Madisonville  had  bequeathed  to  the  Museum  about 
twenty-five  acres  of  land,  on  which  is  situated  a  large  part  of  the  ancient 
Indian  cemetery  where,  in  connection  with  Dr.  Metz,  since  1881,  the  Curator 
has  carried  on  extensive  explorations,  and  from  which  place  a  considerable  col¬ 
lection  has  been  made  and  exhibited  in  the  Museum.  This  bequest  was  con¬ 
firmed  by  a  notice  from  the  executor  of  Miss  Ferris’  will.  It  was  known  that 
Miss  Ferris  was  much  interested  in  the  explorations  on  her  farm  to  which  she 
always  gave  her  consent  and  kindly  aid;  and  it  was  her  expressed  desire  that 
the  Museum  should  have  the  right  to  continue  the  work,  and  that  after  the 
explorations  were  completed  the  land  should  be  used  as  a  public  park,  thus 
marking  the  site  of  the  ancient  village  and  cemetery.1 

As  it  was  deemed  desirable  for  the  Museum  to  carry  on  the 
work  of  exploration  during  that  year,  R.  B.  Dixon  and  J.  R. 
Swanton,  with  Ingersoll  Bowditch  of  the  class  of  1897,  assisted 
by  the  cooperation  of  Dr.  Metz,  explored  a  portion  of  the  ground. 
Mr.  Bowditch  made  a  survey  and  plan  of  the  site  which  forms  the 
basis  of  the  final  plan  (plate  30). 

Excavations  by  J.  R.  Swanton.  The  account  of  the  excavations 
conducted  in  1897  is  derived  from  the  report  of  J.  R.  Swanton, 
his  field  notes  and  map,  all  of  which  are  in  the  archives  of  the 
Museum.  Work  was  carried  on  from  July  27  to  October  20. 

Mr.  Swanton  says  in  his  report : 

The  work  was  under  the  general  supervision  of  Dr.  C.  L.  Metz,  and  under 
the  more  immediate  charge  of  Mr.  R.  B.  Dixon  and  myself,  Mr.  Dixon  taking 
charge  during  the  first  five  weeks  and  myself  during  the  remainder  of  the  time. 
Mr.  Ingersoll  Bowditch  assisted  in  the  work  throughout  and  executed  surveys 
of  the  bequest  to  the  Museum  and  the  location  of  the  Indian  burial  place  upon 
it. 

The  general  location  of  the  Madisonville  cemetery  is  well  known  to  stu¬ 
dents.  .  .  .  The  hilltop  on  which  it  is  situated  sinks  south  to  the  lower 
bottom  lands  of  the  Little  Miami  River.  On  the  west  it  is  bounded  by  a  small 


Thirty-first  Report  of  the  Peabody  Museum,  p.  10. 


Peabody  Museum  Papers 


Vol.  VIII,  Plate  1 


Portions  of  Trenches  II  and  III,  showing  skeletons  and  positions  of  pottery  vessels  found 
with  them,  also  the  distribution  of  cache-pits,  hearths  and  post-holes.  This  area  is  indi¬ 
cated  on  plate  30  by  the  rectangle  enclosed  by  broken  lines. 


NEAR  MADISONVILLE,  OHIO 


7 


steep-sided  stream  known  as  Whiskey  Run  and  on  the  other  two  sides  by  less 
considerable  declivities.  The  extreme  eastern  portion  extends  beyond  the 
Museum  lot  into  the  Stites  estate,  but  this  together  with  the  southern  part  of 
the  cemetery  included  in  the  lot  itself  has  already  been  explored.  Our  ex¬ 
plorations  this  summer  were  consequently  the  western  part  of  the  hilltop 
toward  Whiskey  Run.  .  .  .  Our  trench  lines  were  run  bearing  N.  58°E.  and 
stakes  were  driven  every  ten  feet  from  which  to  locate  the  articles  discovered. 
Five  trenches  were  run  in  all,  four  of  them  of  the  regulation  forty  feet  width 
and  one  of  twenty  feet.  The  length  was  determined  at  one  end  by  the  boun¬ 
daries  of  previous  explorations,  at  the  other  by  a  straight  line  two  hundred 
feet  from  the  lower  line  of  Trench  I  which  extended  to  the  edge  of  the  hill. 
Trenches  I,  II,  and  half  of  III  were  extended  to  this  line  but  work  had  to  be 
discontinued  before  Trenches  IV,  V,  and  the  second  half  of  III  were  carried 
so  far. 

The  soil  of  this  hill  was  composed  of  three  strata,  .  .  .  First  came  black 
forest  mould  two  to  three  feet  thick  at  the  edge  of  the  hill  and  decreasing 
slowly  to  one  foot  and  a  hah  or  a  foot  at  the  upper  end  of  the  trenches.  Be¬ 
neath  this  was  four  or  five  feet  of  hard  yellow  clay,  and  underlying  all  at  a 
depth  of  perhaps  six  feet  a  very  deep  deposit  of  sand.  On  the  Stites  estate 
much  of  the  hill  had  been  removed  for  this  sand. 

Trench  I  yielded  67  burials,  71  cache-pits,  7  pots;  Trench  II, 
51  burials,  50  cache-pits,  4  pots;  Trench  III,  66  burials,  21  cache- 
pits,  11  pots;  Trench  IV,  38  burials,  31  cache-pits,  18  pots; 
Trench  V,  3  burials,  4  cache-pits.  The  total  number  of  skeletons 
excavated  during  the  season  was  230.  One  hundred  and  seventy- 
seven  cache-pits  and  13  fire  places  were  explored;  42  pots  were 
found.  Plate  1  is  a  copy  of  a  part  of  Mr.  Swanton’s  plan  showing 
in  detail  the  position  of  burials  and  the  distribution  of  cache- 
pits.  The  area  illustrated  is  indicated  on  plate  30  by  the  rec¬ 
tangle  enclosed  by  broken  lines  in  Trenches  II  and  III. 

Excavations  by  R.  E.  Merwin.  The  next  exploration  of  the 
site  was  conducted  in  1907  by  It.  E.  Merwin,  Hemenway  Fellow 
in  the  Museum,  assisted  by  Irwin  Hayden,  also  Hemenway  Fel¬ 
low.  The  work  continued  from  July  6  to  November  7,  1907.  The 
results  of  this  season’s  excavations  may  be  summarized  from  Mr. 
Merwin’s  report,  maps,  and  field  notes. 

Mr.  Merwin’s  Trench  A  included  the  tract  of  land  lying  be¬ 
tween  Trench  I  of  the  1897  excavations  and  the  northwestern 
edge  of  the  plateau  as  delimited  by  the  banks  of  the  creek,  Whis¬ 
key  Run. 

The  side  of  this  trench  adjoining  the  previously  explored  territory  is  com¬ 
paratively  regular,  but  the  other  side  is  very  irregular,  due  to  the  meander- 


8 


INDIAN  VILLAGE  SITE  AND  CEMETERY 


ings  of  the  ravine  bank.  In  size  it  is  150  feet  long,  at  both  ends  practically 
10  feet  wide,  its  greatest  width  at  the  center  being  approximately  100  feet. 
The  depth  necessary  to  carry  the  trench  to  hard-pan  varied  from  1  to  2  feet. 

This  trench  yielded  but  4  skeletons,  15  cache-pits  and  one  hearth. 
It  marks  the  northern  boundary  of  the  cemetery. 

Trench  B  extended  northwest  from  the  head  of  the  ravine 
which  divides  the  southern  part  of  the  plateau  into  east  and  west 
portions.  The  southern  and  western  sides  of  this  trench  adjoined 
land  previously  explored  by  Dr.  Metz. 

Explorations  were  started  in  the  southeast  end  of  the  trench  so  that  the 
work  might  be  carried  forward  to  a  better  advantage,  for  there  is  a  decided 
elevation  in  the  ground  to  the  northwest.  A  fifty  foot  trench  was  laid  out, 
but  owing  to  the  irregularity  of  the  previously  explored  ground,  its  width 
varied  from  35  to  75  feet.  Its  length  was  130  feet. 

Sixty  skeletons  were  found  in  this  trench.  Forty  cache-pits  and 
two  hearths  were  explored. 

After  carrying  Trench  B  forward  about  130  feet,  it  was  thought  best  to 
start  another  trench  parallel  and  adjacent  to  it.  But  opening  the  trench  in 
line  with  the  southeast  end  of  Trench  B,  it  was  found  that  former  explorations 
had  not  been  carried  this  far.  So  instead  of  running  a  trench  to  the  north¬ 
west  as  in  the  case  of  Trench  B,  one  was  run  in  an  opposite  direction,  following 
along  a  narrow  ravine  now  used  as  a  road.  This  made  an  irregular  shaped 
trench;  and  it  was  also  necessary  to  vary  the  width  of  it  in  order  to  take  in 
all  the  unexplored  territory  adjoining  it.  This  trench  was  extended  for  a 
distance  of  110  feet,  the  width  varying  from  30  to  50  feet. 

There  were  found  in  Trench  C,  21  skeletons  and  31  cache-pits.  A 
portion  of  this  trench  was  occupied  by  a  large  kitchen-midden 
which  had  been  partially  explored  by  Dr.  Metz  in  earlier  years. 

The  total  finds  of  the  season’s  work  were  85  skeletons,  32  pots, 
88  cache-pits,  and  3  hearths  or  fire  places. 

In  the  following  year  (1908)  Mr.  Merwin  excavated  in  the  site 
of  the  cemetery  from  April  1  until  September  15,  opening  three 
trenches.  The  portion  explored  in  1908  was  adjacent  to  that  ex¬ 
cavated  in  the  latter  portion  of  the  season  of  1907  (see  plate  30). 

Trench  D  was  a  continuation  of  Trench  C  northward,  and  ad¬ 
joined  Trench  B  on  the  west. 

As  can  be  seen  by  the  map,  this  trench  had  a  width  of  80  feet,  and  in  general 
was  180  feet  long,  with  an  irregular  strip  on  the  south  side. 

This  trench  yielded  101  skeletons  and  147  cache-pits. 


Peabody  Museum  Papers 


Vol.  VIII,  Plate  2 


Madisonville  Site 

The  greater  part  of  Trench  D,  showing  skeletons  and  the  positions  of  pottery  vessels 
found  with  them,  also  the  distribution  of  cache-pits.  This  area  is  shown  on  plate  30  by 
the  rectangle  enclosed  by  broken  lines. 


NEAR  MADISONVILLE,  OHIO 


9 


Trench  E  was  merely  a  continuation  of  Trench  B  of  the  explorations  of 
1907.  It  varied  in  width  from  35  to  55  feet  and  extended  toward  the  bluff 
of  the  ravine;  a  distance  of  170  feet.  As  can  be  seen  on  the  map  of  this  trench 
the  finds  were  very  good  in  the  southern  portion,  but  the  northern  part  is 
practically  devoid  of  skeletons  or  cache-pits. 

The  reason  for  the  barrenness  of  this  portion  of  the  trench  is,  as 
can  be  seen  from  the  general  map,  because  this  tract  had  already 
been  explored.  There  were  38  skeletons  and  41  cache-pits  found 
in  this  trench. 

Trench  F  was  a  continuation  of  Trench  D. 

Perhaps  one  of  the  most  striking  things  in  connection  with  its  exploration 
was  the  depth  at  which  some  of  the  skeletons  were  found.  Many  of  them  were 
from  3  ft.  6  in.  to  4  ft.  below  the  surface  and  extended  2  ft.  6  in.  to  3  ft.  in¬ 
to  the  hard-pan. 

There  were  37  skeletons  and  59  cache-pits  found  in  this  trench. 

The  total  number  of  skeletons  exhumed  in  the  season  was  176 
and  247  cache-pits  and  3  hearths  were  explored. 

Excavations  by  B.  W.  Merwin.  In  1911  B.  W.  Merwin, 
brother  of  R.  E.  Merwin,  conducted  explorations  for  the  Museum 
in  the  northeastern  portion  of  the  tract.  The  data  in  regard  to 
his  excavations  are  derived  from  his  field  notes  and  maps. 

Trench  G  was  east  of  Trench  E  and  north  of  Trench  F  and  ex¬ 
tended  N.  76°  E.  As  laid  out,  the  block  was  290  feet  long  and 
30  feet  wide.  Beginning  at  the  west  end  the  trench  was  excavated 
90  feet  eastward  and  a  trial  trench  was  dug  at  its  eastern  ex¬ 
tremity.  This  trench  yielded  only  3  skeletons  and  7  cache-pits 
and  seems  to  have  marked  the  northeastern  limit  of  the  cemetery. 

Trench  H  ran  parallel  with  Trench  G.  Its  southeastern  corner 
•  was  200  feet  south  of  the  corresponding  corner  of  Trench  G. 
Trench  H  was  150  feet  long  and  50  feet  wide;  it  yielded  43  skele¬ 
tons  and  72  cache-pits. 

Trench  I  was  80  feet  square  and  ran  parallel  and  adjacent  to 
Trench  H  on  the  south.  Trench  I  contained  26  skeletons,  52 
cache-pits,  and  23  post-holes. 

Trench  J  was  a  plot  30  feet  by  50  feet  laid  off  north  of  the  east¬ 
ern  portion  of  Trench  H  and  adjacent  to  it,  and  east  of  Trench  I. 
Several  trial  trenches  were  dug  in  this  tract  and  two  cache-pits 
were  discovered. 


10 


INDIAN  VILLAGE  SITE  AND  CEMETERY 


Trench  Iv  was  an  irregular  tract  situated  on  a  southern  point 
of  the  plateau.  In  this  trench  were  found  12  skeletons  and  13 
cache-pits. 

In  addition  to  the  above,  Mr.  Merwin  dug  several  trial  trenches 
in  the  tract  north  of  Trench  G  and  south  of  the  plateau  edge,  and 
was  able  to  establish  the  fact  that  the  cemetery  did  not  cover  this 
northern  portion  of  the  plateau.  Six  other  trial  trenches,  dug 
north  of  Whiskey  Run  toward  the  eastern  boundary  of  the  Museum 
tract  gave  negative  results. 

THE  BURIALS 

Depth  of  Interments.  The  depth  of  the  burials  varied  in  the 
different  parts  of  the  cemetery  and  in  individual  cases.  Usually 
the  graves  were  dug  in  the  soft  leaf  mould  overlying  the  hard 
yellow  clay,  and  did  not  extend  down  into  the  latter.  Conse¬ 
quently,  where  the  leaf  mould  lay  thick,  the  depth  of  the  inter¬ 
ments  tended  to  be  greater,  and  where  the  leaf  mould  was  thin, 
the  graves  were  likely  to  be  shallow.  Naturally,  in  certain  places 
denudation  of  the  surface  soil  took  place,  so  that  burials  were  ex¬ 
posed  or  their  original  depth  decreased.  Mr.  Swanton  says: 

The  skeletons  were  usually  buried  in  the  lower  part  of  the  black  mould  or 
the  upper  part  of  the  hard-pan.  The  depth  was  eighteen  to  twenty-four 
inches. 

Tabulation  of  the  depth  of  interment  of  151  burials  (all  the 
skeletons  excavated  by  Dr.  Metz  in  1879  in  which  depth  was  re¬ 
corded)  gives  the  following  result: 

Less  than 


Depth .  12  in.  12-18  in.  19-24  in.  25-36  in.  37-48  in.  4  ft. 

Number  of  burials.  ..  .  8  53  77  12  0  1 

Percent .  5.3  35.1  51.0  8.0  0.0  0.6 


This  random  sample  agrees  well  enough  with  Mr.  Swanton’s 
statement.  R.  E.  Merwin  also  says: 

A  few  were  found  in  the  hard-pan,  but  for  the  most  part  they  were  resting 
directly  upon  the  hard-pan  or  above  it  in  the  black  soil. 

Mr.  Merwin  notes,  however,  that  in  Trench  F  some  of  the 
burials  were  of  unusual  depth: 

Many  of  them  were  3  ft.  6  in.  to  4  ft.  below  the  surface  and  extended  2  ft. 
6  in.  to  3  ft.  into  the  hard-pan.  Of  37  burials  in  this  trench,  6,  or  16.2  per  centr 


NEAR  MADISONVILLE,  OHIO 


11 


were  at  a  depth  of  more  than  3  feet  from  the  highest  point  of  the  skull  to  the 
surface;  17,  or  46  per  cent,  were  between  25  in.  and  36  in.;  8,  or  21.6  per  cent, 
were  between  19  in.  and  24  in.;  6,  or  16.2  per  cent,  from  12  in.  to  18  in. 


Forms  of  Burial.  The  following  table  shows  the  distribution  of 
forms  of  burial  for  650  skeletons  exhumed  by  Dr.  Metz : 


Contracted 

Horizontal 

Sitting 

Collective 
and  disturbed 

Total 

Number . 

.  38 

491 

32 

89 

650 

Per  cent . 

.  5.8 

75.6 

4.9 

13.7 

100.00 

Of  231  skeletons  found  by  Mr.  Swanton, 

164,  or  71 

per  cent, 

were  extended  or  horizontal  burials;  66,  or  28.6  per  cent,  were  col¬ 
lective  or  disturbed  burials;  there  was  but  one  contracted  burial. 
He  says  in  his  report: 

The  position  was  invariably  full  length,  except  in  the  cache-pits.  Not  in¬ 
frequently  a  skull  with  a  small  pile  of  long  bones  would  be  found  beside  a 
regular  full  length  burial.  [See  plate  3,  b.] 

Horizontal  or  Extended  Burials.  More  than  75  per  cent  of  all 
the  burials  in  the  Madisonville  cemetery  were  horizontal  or  ex¬ 
tended  burials.  In  addition  to  these  a  large  number  of  the  dis¬ 
turbed  or  “  bunched  ”  burials  may  have  been  originally  extended 
burials  which  had  been  moved  to  make  room  for  later  interments. 
In  most  cases  the  bodies  were  laid  flat  upon  their  backs,  with  the 
faces  either  upward  or  turned  to  one  side.  The  arms  were  usually 
extended  at  the  sides  (plates  3,  a,  b  and  4,  b).  ■ 

Contracted  Burials.  Dr.  Metz  records  38,  or  6.3  per  cent,  of 
his  burials  as  contracted  or  “  in  the  doubled-up  position.”  Con¬ 
tracted  burials  seem  to  have  been  confined  to  the  southern  portion 
of  the  cemetery  excavated  by  Dr.  Metz,  since  the  subsequent 
excavators  found  them  only  in  cases  where  bodies  had  been  buried 
in  cache-pits  and  were  necessarily  flexed. 

Burials  in  Sitting  Posture.  These  were  also  confined  to  that 
portion  of  the  cemetery  which  Dr.  Metz  explored.  He  records  32, 
or  5  per  cent  of  the  skeletons  exhumed  by  him.  Of  these,  all  but 
one  were  found  during  the  excavations  of  the  first  season,  and  in 
the  first  few  weeks  of  the  work.  Burials  in  the  sitting  posture 
seem,  therefore,  to  have  been  confined  to  the  extreme  south¬ 
western  portion  of  the  cemetery. 


12 


INDIAN  VILLAGE  SITE  AND  CEMETERY 


Collective  and  Disturbed  Burials.  The  collective  burials  found 

seem  to  have  been  secondary  in  character.  In  certain  places  a 
number  of  old  burials  may  have  been  cleared  away  to  make  room 
for  new  ones  and  the  disarticulated  bones  from  the  old  graves 
buried  in  a  common  pit.  Dr.  Metz  records  the  following  find  on 
April  12,  1879: 

A  circular  excavation,  3|  feet  in  diameter,  was  made,  and  from  it  were  taken 
twenty-two  skeletons.  The  bottom  of  this  pit  was  paved  with  the  river  mussel 
shells  ( Unio );  over  them  were  the  bones  of  the  lower  extremities  and  trunks, 
and  above  these  the  skulls. 

Another  more  typical  collective  burial,  consisting  of  one  articu¬ 
lated  skeleton  and  a  miscellaneous  heap  of  bones  of  several  in¬ 
dividuals,  was  found  by  Dr.  Metz,  September  24,  1879: 

An  adult  female  with  small  foetal  bones  in  pelvic  region,  and  a  confused 
mass  of  bones  about  her  lower  extremities,  among  which  were  five  crania,  two 
facing  upwards  and  three  downwards. 

Finds  analogous  to  the  above  are  reported  by  all  of  the  exca¬ 
vators  (see  plate  3).  Very  commonly  odd  portions  of  a  disturbed 
burial  were  found  in  a  subsequent  interment. 

In  some  instances  burials  were  disturbed  in  order  to  make  room 
for  cache-pits.  Dr.  Metz  on  September  3,  1880,  reports: 

Block  10,  skeleton  1,  head  east,  adult  male;  arms  flexed  on  the  humeri. 
The  body  was  disarticulated  at  the  second  lumbar  vertebra;  the  lower  ex¬ 
tremities  together  with  the  pelvis  were  buried  separately,  probably  to  make 
way  for  cache-pit  1  of  this  block. 

R.  E.  Merwin  makes  the  following  note  on  skeleton  37  in 
Trench  D: 

Adult;  ash-pit  71  had  been  dug  through  this  skeleton,  and  the  portion  in 
the  way  of  the  pit  had  been  removed;  the  parts  removed  were  the  right 
femur,  right  pelvic  bone,  sacrum,  some  of  the  lower  right  ribs,  right  ulna  and 
radius,  and  about  two  inches  of  the  distal  end  of  the  right  humerus,  and  all 
of  the  right  finger  bones. 

Burials  disturbed  by  the  digging  of  cache-pits  are  not  infrequent]}" 
reported  throughout  the  excavations  (see  plate  4,  a,  d). 

Burials  in  Cache-pits.  In  rare  instances  bodies  were  buried  in 
the  cache-pits.  The  first  of  these  burials  was  recorded  by  Dr. 
Metz  on  January  20,  1880: 

Skeleton  3.  Block  3,  in  the  bottom  of  above  pit  (cache-pit  2),  lying  on 
back,  face  up,  head  northwest,  legs  sharply  flexed  on  thighs.  The  portion  of 


Peabody  Museum  Papers 


Vol.  VIII,  Plate  3 


Madisonville  Site 

<z,  Skeleton.  19,  Trench  IV,  showing  a  common  method  of  burial.  A  tobacco  pipe  and  food 
vessel  were  found  near  the  skull;  6,  Skeletons  1-4,  Trench  IV,  an  extended  burial  and  a 
collective  burial  of  the  skulls  and  principal  bones  of  three  individuals;  c,  Collective 
burial,  skeletons  34,  35,  Trench  H;  d.  Collective  burial,  skeletons  19-25,  Trench  H. 


NEAR  MADISONVILLE.  OHIO 


13 


the  pit  surrounding  the  skeleton  and  below  the  layer  of  charcoal  was  walled, 
but  not  floored,  with  flat  limestones,  10  to  12  inches  square,  and  all  distinctly 
showing  the  action  of  fire,  having  been  burnt,  however,  before  being  placed  in 
their  present  position,  as  the  walls  and  floor  of  the  pit  do  not  show  any  traces 
of  having  been  burnt. 

Cache-pit  8  in  Block  14  contained  a  calvaria  unaccompanied 
by  any  other  portion  of  the  skeleton. 

In  Mr.  Swanton’s  excavations,  skeletons  II,  4,  III,  19,  and 
IV,  7  and  8  were  buried  in  cache-pits. 

Skeleton  III,  19  lay  in  a  rather  confused  heap  near  the  bottom  of  cache-pit 
III,  5.  The  body  seems  to  have  been  doubled  up,  heels  on  the  thighs  and  the 
knees  drawn  up  toward  the  chest.  The  skull  was  not  in  its  proper  position 
but  lay  on  the  right  side.  Depth  of  skeleton,  5  ft.  3  in.  Under  it  was  a  large 
stone,  and  above  three  others,  one  a  grindstone. 

In  Mr.  Merwin’s  report  on  Trench  B,  he  says: 

Skeleton  14  was  that  of  an  adult  buried  dorsal  side  up,  in  the  bottom  of 
cache-pit  15.  The  walls  of  the  pit  had  been  slightly  widened  at  the  bottom  to 
make  room  for  the  head  and  feet.  Above  the  skeleton  were  the  usual  contents 
to  be  found  in  cache-pits  of  this  trench. 

In  regard  to  the  cache-pits  of  Trench  C,  he  says: 

Another  noticeable  feature  was  the  presence  of  human  bones,  and  oft- 
times  of  entire  skeletons,  in  the  pits.  In  7  pits  there  were  found  human  bones 
■ —  lower  ja.w,  portions  of  skull,  finger  and  toe  bones,  etc.  In  three  pits  there 
were  bunches  of  human  bones.  It  seems  very  probable  that  when  digging  a 
cache-pit  a  skeleton  had  been  disturbed  and  the  bones  placed  in  a  pile  over 
the  pit,  while  that  portion  of  the  skeleton  not  disturbed  by  the  pit  was  left  in 
its  original  position. 

In  Trench  E,  skeleton  9  was  buried  in  the  bottom  of  cache-pit 
1,  and  above  it  and  separated  from  it  by  a  stratum  of  black  earth, 
two  to  four  inches  in  thickness,  were  five  disarticulated  skeletons. 
Skeleton  24  of  this  trench  was  buried  in  a  sitting  posture  in  cache- 
pit  14. 

Burials  over  cache-pits  were  also  common  and  in  many  cases 
portions  of  the  skeletons  above  the  cache-pit  had  sunk  down  into 
the  pit,  owing  to  the  settling  of  the  earth  underneath. 

Anomalous  Burials.  Writing  of  a  family  group  of  six  skeletons 
(Block  6,  25-30),  Dr.  Metz  says: 

The  earth  above  these  skeletons  was  baked  hard  and  of  a  brick  red  color  in 
several  places  with  layers  of  ashes.  The  leaf  mould  here  was  6  inches  deep 
against  16  inches  elsewhere. 


14 


INDIAN  VILLAGE  SITE  AND  CEMETERY 


Mr.  Swanton  records  a  stratum  of  burnt  clay  two  inches  thick, 
eight  inches  above  skeleton  II,  7,  and  extending  all  over  the  body. 
These  burnt  areas  may  well  have  been  fire  places. 

In  Block  12  of  Dr.  Metz’s  excavations  the  head  of  skeleton  582 
rested  on  a  large  limestone.  Another  large  limestone  was  placed 
over  the  chest,  and  one  over  the  thighs  just  above  the  knees.  The 
stones  showed  evidence  of  having  been  exposed  to  the  action  of 
fire.  Skeletons  with  the  heads  pillowed  on  large  flat  limestones 
which  had  been  exposed  to  the  action  of  fire  were  occasionally 
found. 

In  Trench  F  the  grave  of  skeleton  10  had  been  paved  with  lime¬ 
stone  slabs,  and  both  at  the  head  and  at  the  foot  of  the  grave  two 
slabs  had  been  set  up  on  end.  On  plate  4,  a,  is  shown  a  grave 
lined  with  limestone  slabs  through  which  a  cache-pit  has  been 
dug. 

In  Trench  III,  skeletons  33,  35,  36  were  laid  on  blocks  of  lime¬ 
stone  and  were  also  covered  with  them. 

Grouping  of  Burials.  Often  a  number  of  burials  were  arranged 
in  a  group  in  a  way  that  would  seem  to  indicate  either  simulta¬ 
neous  burial  of  a  number  of  individuals,  or,  perhaps,  a  species 
of  division  into  family  lots. 

The  most  common  form  of  grouping  consisted  in  placing  hori¬ 
zontal  burials  side  by  side  and  close  together,  with  the  heads  laid 
in  the  same  direction.  Skeletons  3,  4,  and  5  of  Block  15  were  an 
adult  male  in  a  horizontal  position,  an  adult  female  parallel  and 
close  to  the  male,  and  a  child  of  about  two  years  buried  in  extended 
posture  between  the  legs  of  the  female  with  his  head  resting  on 
the  pelvis  of  the  mother.  In  Block  11,  skeleton  25,  that  of  a  child, 
was  similarly  buried  between  the  legs  of  an  adult  female  with  his 
head  resting  on  her  pelvis.  Two  feet  to  the  north  wrere  the  skele¬ 
tons  of  three  children,  one  in  a  horizontal  position  and  the  other 
two  in  disarticulated  heaps  on  either  side  of  the  lower  extremities 
of  the  extended  burial.  Fourteen  inches  to  the  south  of  the  left 
ilium  of  the  central  adult  female  burial  of  the  group,  was  a  single 
adult  detached  cranium.  Another  isolated  cranium  w^as  found 
fourteen  inches  to  the  south  of  the  left  tibia  of  the  central  burial. 
North  of  this  same  burial  and  20  inches  from  the  lowTer  extremi¬ 
ties  wras  a  heap  of  bones  sufficient  to  make  up  two  adult  skeletons 
and,  as  Dr.  Metz  says:  “  seemingly  the  bones  of  the  skeletons 


Peabody  Museum  Papers 


Vol.  VIII,  Plate  4 


Madisonville  Site 


a,  Skeleton  10,  Trench  F.  The  grave  was  originally  lined  with  limestone  slabs.  A  cache- 
pit  was  subsequently  dug  through  the  grave;  b,  Extended  burial;  c,  Grouped  burial, 
skeletons  8-10,  Trench  B;  d,  Skeleton  82,  Trench  D,  an  extended  burial  through  which  a 
cache-pit  has  been  dug. 


NEAR  MADISONVILLE,  OHIO 


15 


belonging  to  the  detached  crania.”  Apparently  in  this  instance 
one  family  group  had  been  disturbed  in  order  to  make  room  for 
the  burial  of  another. 

In  Block  6  skeletons  25-30  were  apparently  a  family  group. 
They  were  all  horizontal  burials  on  the  same  level  and  covered 
with  a  layer  of  baked  earth.  The  adult  male  was  buried  under¬ 
neath  the  adult  female  and  the  children  whose  ages  ranged  from  3  to 
5  years  were  on  the  same  level  as  the  mother,  but  further  to  the 
east. 

Not  infrequently  husband  and  wife  were  buried  side  by  side  or 
in  the  same  grave,  one  above  the  other.  An  instance  of  the  latter 
case  was  found  in  Block  1 1  where  skeleton  547,  an  adult  male,  was 
buried  head  to  the  north,  face  up,  with  the  tibiae  flexed  at  right 
angles  to  the  body.  An  adult  female  skeleton  was  buried  in  a 
horizontal  position  with  the  cranium  resting  on  the  thorax  of  the 
male. 

Block  16  presented  an  interesting  group  consisting  of  a  male 
adult  buried  in  the  horizontal  position  and  three  immature  per¬ 
sons,  each  buried  in  the  contracted  posture  on  his  back,  the  three 
superimposed  in  one  grave.  This  same  block  included  a  group  in 
which  two  adult  skeletons,  sex  not  stated,  were  buried  in  a  con¬ 
tracted  position  on  the  lower  extremities  of  an  adult  male  lying  in 
a  horizontal  position.  A  good  example  of  a  grouped  burial  is  illus¬ 
trated  in  plate  4,  c. 

Orientation  of  Burials.  The  following  table  shows  the  direction 
in  which  the  head  was  laid  in  453  burials  of  which  the  orientation 
was  recorded  by  Dr.  Metz: 


N. 

s. 

E. 

w. 

NE. 

SE. 

NW. 

sw. 

Total 

Number 

35 

139 

122 

13 

37 

80 

15 

12 

453 

Per  cent 

7.7 

30.6 

26.9 

2.8 

8.1 

17.6 

3.3 

2.6 

100.00 

It  will  be  observed  from  the  above  that  the  bodies  were  laid  in 
all  directions,  but  prevailingly  with  heads  toward  the  south,  the 
east,  and  the  southeast.  Three  hundred  and  forty -one,  or  75.2  per 
cent,  of  453  burials  were  orientated  in  this  general  direction.  Mr. 
Swanton  says  in  his  report: 

The  bodies  were  laid  with  the  heads  in  all  directions.  The  great  majority 
have  their  heads  bearing  east,  while  south  seems  to  be  the  next  most  popular 
direction. 


>1 


16  INDIAN  VILLAGE  SITE  AND  CEMETERY 

The  following  table  summarizes  the  orientation  of  Mr.  Swanton’s 


burials : 

N. 

S. 

E. 

W. 

NE. 

SE. 

NW. 

sw. 

Total 

Number 

2 

4 

21 

0 

62 

55 

11 

14 

169 

Per  cent 

1.2 

2.4 

12.4 

0.0 

36.7 

32.5 

6.5 

8.2 

100.00 

The  apparent  result  seems  superficially  not  to  agree  with  that 
obtained  by  Dr.  Metz  since  the  table  shows  very  few  burials  with 
heads  south  and  a  larger  number  with  heads  northeast.  This  dif¬ 
ference,  however,  is  probably  due  to  the  fact  that  Dr.  Metz  merely 
estimated  his  orientations,  whereas  Mr.  Swanton  and  subsequent 
excavators  took  their  bearings  accurately  with  a  compass.  Con¬ 
sequently  very  few  burials  are  recorded  as  due  north  and  due  south 
and  none  due  west.  On  the  other  hand  12.4  per  cent  were  due 
east. 

Eighty-one  and  six-tenths  per  cent  of  the  burials  recorded  by 
Mr.  Swanton  were  orientated  east,  northeast,  or  southeast. 

Objects  Associated  with  the  Burials.  This  section  deals  with 
the  finds  in  the  cemetery  only  in  relation  to  the  burials. 

The  following  table  shows  the  number  of  pots  found  by  the 
principal  excavators  and  recorded  in  the  field  notes  deposited  in 
the  Peabody  Museum.  It  also  indicates  the  position  of  the  pots 
with  reference  to  the  body,  where  found  in  association  with  burials, 
and  mentioned  by  the  investigators. 

Number  Right  Left  Between 

of  pots  Head  Feet  side  side  knees 


Dr.  Metz .  228  137  11  4  11  3 

J.  E.  Swanton .  46  26  0  5  4  3 

R.  E.  Merwin .  72  49  1  6  7  6 

B.  W.  Merwin .  7  7  0  0  0  0 

F.  W.  Putnam .  1  1  0  0  0  0 

Total .  354  219  12  15  22  12 


Of  354  pots  recorded  to  have  been  found  by  the  excavators  r 
their  position,  in  relation  to  the  body,  is  stated  in  280  instances. 
Of  the  remainder  practically  all  were  found  with  skeletons,  but 
in  the  first  year  of  his  excavations  Dr.  Metz  frequently  omitted 
to  note  the  position  of  the  pots  in  relation  to  the  associated  burials. 

It  will  be  observed  that  in  the  vast  majority  of  cases  the  pots 
were  found  at  the  head,  either  above  the  vertex  or  to  the  left  or 
right  without  apparent  distinction. 


NEAR  MADISONVILLE,  OHIO 


17 


About  28  per  cent  of  the  entire  number  of  burials  recorded  had 
pots  associated  with  them,  usually  one  pot  to  a  burial.  The  pot¬ 
tery  finds  were  more  numerous  by  far  in  the  southwestern  portion 
of  the  cemetery  excavated  by  Dr.  Metz  in  1879.  In  the  north¬ 
western  portion  excavated  by  the  Merwin  brothers,  pots  and  arti¬ 
facts  of  all  kinds  were  rare. 

The  pots  were  buried  with  individuals  of  both  sexes  and  of  all 
ages  without  distinction.  Mr.  Swanton  says: 

As  a  rule  one  unio  shell  was  found  in  each  pot,  seeming  to  indicate  that  it 
contained  —  if  indeed  it  contained  anything  —  something  of  a  liquid  nature. 
These  pots  were  frequently  such  as  had  been  broken  around  the  rims  before 
burial. 

R.  E.  Merwin  also  states  that  an  examination  of  the  contents  of 
the  pots  usually  showed  one  or  more  unio  shells  and  a  few  small 
fragments  of  animal  bones.  All  of  the  investigators  found  occa¬ 
sional  pots  containing  traces  of  red  ocher. 

It  is  perhaps  worthy  of  note  that  on  April  1,  1879,  Dr.  Metz 
found  a  pit  containing  four  crania  and  four  pots.  One  of  these 
pots  was  inverted  and  rested  on  a  skull. 

Stone  implements  were  frequently  found  in  the  burials.  These 
included  adze  blades,  grooveless  axes,  hammers,  scrapers,  arrow 
and  spear  points,  chisels,  knives,  and  perforated  disks.  Finds  of 
stone  implements  in  the  burials  seem  to  have  been  far  more  com¬ 
mon  in  the  southwestern  portion  of  the  cemetery,  first  excavated 
by  Dr.  Metz,  than  in  his  later  explorations  and  those  of  the  sub¬ 
sequent  excavators.  The  majority  of  the  implements  seem  to 
have  been  found  in  the  cache-pits  and  kitchen-middens,  and  in 
the  leaf  mould,  rather  than  in  the  graves.  Arrowpoints,  groove¬ 
less  axes  and  knives  were  the  commonest  implements  found  with 
the  bodies.  In  several  instances  arrowpoints  were  found  em¬ 
bedded  in  portions  of  the  skeletons.  On  April  12,  1879,  Dr.  Metz 
found  a  collective  burial  consisting  of  22  skeletons. 

A  sacrum  belonging  to  one  of  these  skeletons  had  imbedded  in  the  anterior 
surface  near  the  upper  border  a  flint  arrowhead,  which  in  order  to  reach  that 
position  in  the  living  body  must  have  passed  through  the  abdominal  walls 
and  intestines  in  an  oblique  direction,  from  above  downwards  and  to  the 
right. 

On  July  10  of  the  same  year  the  skeleton  of  an  adult  was  ex¬ 
humed,  one  of  the  dorsal  vertebrae  of  which  had  a  flint  arrow- 


18 


INDIAN  VILLAGE  SITE  AND  CEMETERY 


point  embedded  in  its  dorsal  aspect.  Mr.  Swanton  and  Mr. 
Merwin  record  similar  finds. 

Pipes  of  limestone  or  catlinite  were  often  found  with  the  skele¬ 
tons  of  males.  Dr.  Metz  mentions  47  of  these  in  his  field  notes, 
and  it  is  probable  that  he  found  many  more  than  that  number. 
Mr.  Swanton  says  that  he  found  18  complete  pipes,  and  twice  as 
many  broken  ones.  Pipes  were  usually  found  clasped  in  the  hand 
or  laid  by  the  neck. 

On  June  6,  1879,  Dr.  Metz  discovered  a  burial  with  which  were 
associated  “  two  inscribed  stones,”  one  of  which  seems  to  have 
been  incised  with  double-pointed  arrow  designs,  and  the  other 
with  checker-board  pattern. 

Bone  objects  commonly  found  with  the  burials  were  beads, 
cylinders,  scrapers  or  gouges,  and  awls.  Miscellaneous  unworked 
animal  bones  frequently  occurred  with  the  human  burials. 

Aside  from  unio  shells  which  were  commonly  found  in  the  pots 
and  loose  in  the  graves,  objects  of  shell  were  rare  in  the  burials. 
There  occurred,  however,  shell  beads,  disks,  pendants,  perforated 
box  tortoise  shells,  and  at  least  one  ornamented  shell  spoon. 
(Metz,  skeleton  222,  1879.)  Other  objects  found  with  the  skele¬ 
tons  include  points,  cylinders,  harpoons,  arrow  straighteners, 
combs,  and  arm-bands. 

Ornaments  of  copper  and  pieces  of  hammered  copper  were 
found  alike  in  graves  and  cache-pits,  in  the  kitchen-middens,  and 
among  the  surface  relics.  Dr.  Metz  records  the  finding  of  more 
than  50  flat  pieces  of  copper,  40  copper  rolls  or  beads,  5  strips 
of  copper,  also  many  beads,  rings,  and  one  copper  cross.  Mr. 
Swanton  and  Mr.  Merwin  also  found  many  copper  beads  and 
hammered  strips  with  the  burials. 

Objects  of  iron  in  the  burials  were  exceedingly  rare.  On  Decem¬ 
ber  17,  1880,  Dr.  Metz  discovered  the  skeleton  of  an  adult  female 
(Block  12,  597),  over  the  chest  of  which  was  placed  “  a  piece 
of  iron  resembling  a  sword  hilt”  (plate  18,  t).  Mr.  Swanton 
found  a  skeleton  (I,  40),  with  which  was  associated  an  iron  bead  or 
cylinder  (plate  18,  s)  embedded  in  the  deerskin.  These  seem  to 
be  the  only  cases  in  which  the  association  of  iron  with  the  burials 
was  definite.  Several  pieces  were  found  in  the  leaf  mould  and 
also  in  the  cache-pits. 


NEAR  MADISONVILLE,  OHIO 


19 


Mr.  Swanton  states  that  blue  glass  beads,  apparently  of  Euro¬ 
pean  origin,  were  found  about  the  head  of  skeleton  I,  39.  A  few 
small  shell  beads  were  found  with  the  glass  beads.  Fragments  of 
the  same  kind  of  glass  beads  were  also  found  by  Mr.  Swanton 
in  three  of  the  cache-pits.  These  glass  beads  were  not  found  by 
the  other  excavators,  with  the  exception  of  Mr.  B.  W.  Merwin, 
who  found  one  in  a  cache-pit. 

Lumps  of  cannel  coal  were  found  with  comparative  frequency 
in  the  burials.  In  some  instances  the  pottery  vessels  contained 
red  ocher.  Dr.  Metz  records  a  burial  (Block  7,  1)  in  which  a 
handful  of  charred  corn  was  found  about  the  cranium.  Bird 
crania  used  for  pendants,  and  animal  teeth  pierced  for  suspension 
or  for  stringing,  were  also  found  in  the  graves. 

Burials  of  Special  Interest.  Certain  burials  deserve  special 
mention,  either  because  of  some  anomalous  feature,  or  because  of 
the  special  interest  of  the  associated  objects.  Some  of  these  have 
already  been  mentioned,  and  others,  which  seemed  of  special  im¬ 
portance  to  the  investigators,  will  be  described  briefly  here. 

In  Trench  I  of  Mr.  Swanton’s  excavations,  skeleton  60  was  as¬ 
sociated  with  some  interesting  finds: 

These  consisted  of  several  copper  plates  one  and  a  half  by  two  inches 
square  which  had  been  clasped  around  deer  hide  still  preserved  with  the  hair 
on  it  by  action  of  the  copper.  With  these  plates  were  found  a  number  of 
shell  beads  made  from  the  inner  whorls  of  univalves,  two  or  three  copper 
beads,  etc.  A  very  small  sea  shell  which  had  been  rubbed  down  in  some  way 
and  discolored  by  ocher,  was  identified  as  Marginella  apicina,  a  variety  of 
shell  from  the  Gulf  Coast  and  the  Carolinas.  All  these  articles  were  between 
the  thigh  bones  of  the  skeleton. 

Grave  18  of  Mr.  R.  E.  Merwin’s  Trench  D. 

This  grave,  primarily  constructed  for  the  burial  of  an  adult  skeleton,  con¬ 
tains  portions  of  at  least  three  skeletons.  The  only  bones  not  disarticulated 
were  those  below  the  pelvis  of  one  of  the  skeletons  and  these  were  on  the  bot¬ 
tom  of  the  grave.  The  right  femur  was  slightly  burned.  Directly  above  and 
in  contact  with  this  portion  of  the  skeleton  was  a  mass  of  burnt  and  unburnt 
bones  of  two  other  skeletons  and  the  upper  bones  (burnt  and  unburnt)  of  the 
first  skeleton.  Many  of  these  bones  were  broken.  The  mixed  earth  in  con¬ 
tact  with  these  bones  and  extending  to  the  surface  of  the  hard-pan  was  burnt, 
although  the  bottom  of  the  grave  shows  but  little  action  of  fire.  Of  the  bones 
in  the  lower  end  of  the  grave  some  were  burnt,  while  others  in  contact  with 
them  were  unburnt.  In  this  grave  were  found  two  pieces  of  worked  antler 
and  thirteen  pieces  of  copper. 


20 


INDIAN  VILLAGE  SITE  AND  CEMETERY 


Grave  32  of  Mr.  Menvin’s  Trench  E. 

Adult;  that  portion  of  the  skeleton  above  the  pelvis  was  in  cache-pit  26, 
and  the  portion  from  the  distal  ends  of  the  femora  down  was  in  cache-pit  25. 
Those  portions  in  the  pits  had  settled  to  a  lower  level  than  the  remaihder  of 
the  skeleton.  Along  the  inside  of  the  right  ulna  and  radius,  resting  partially 
on  the  right  pelvic  bone,  and  at  the  left  of  the  lower  jaw,  were  the  skulls  of 
some  species  of  long-billed  birds.  Between  the  pelvic  bones  were  two  bird 
bones;  on  the  breast  had  evidently  been  placed  a  bone  with  a  series  of  per¬ 
forations. 

Total  Number  of  Burials.  The  following  is  a  summary  of  the 
total  number  of  burials  exhumed  by  the  principal  excavators  and 
recorded  in  the  field  notes  deposited  in  the  Peabody  Museum. 


Number  of  Burials 


C.  L.  Metz 

1879 

360 

J.  R.  S wanton 

1897 

230 

u  u  u 

188*0 

239 

R.  E.  Merwin 

1907 

85 

U  ((  u 

1881 

58 

U  U  (C 

1908 

176 

F.  W.  Putnam 

1882 

6 

B.  W.  Merwin 

1911 

82 

Total  1236 

To  the  above  total  should  be  added  a  number  of  burials  sufficient 
to  account  for  those  washed  out  prior  to  the  discovery  of  the  ceme¬ 
tery,  and  for  those  discovered  by  Dr.  Metz  in  sporadic  excavations 
subsequent  to  August  13,  1881,  at  which  date  the  field  entries 
stop.  We  know  that  when  Professor  Putnam  arrived  in  Madison- 
ville  on  May  2,  1882,  Dr.  Metz  was  excavating  Block  22,  whereas 
his  field  notes  for  the  preceding  year  cease  during,  or  at  the  end 
of,  the  excavations  of  Block  17.  Blocks  2-17  inclusive  averaged 
about  18  burials  to  the  block.  As  the  burials  were  fewer  in  the 
portion  of  the  cemetery  explored  during  the  latter  part  of  the  ex¬ 
cavations,  it  is  probable  that  an  allowance  of  12  burials  to  the 
block,  for  Blocks  18-22,  would  be  sufficient.  This  would  bring 
the  total  up  to  1296  and  allowing  for  burials  destroyed  or  undis¬ 
covered  it  is  probable  that  the  total  number  of  burials  made  in  the 
cemetery  was  not  less  than  1350. 

Death  Rate  as  Indicated  by  Burials.  In  order  to  calculate  the 
population  of  the  village  site  to  which  the  cemetery  belonged  we 
should  know  the  total  number  of  burials,  the  length  of  time  during 
which  the  cemetery  was  used,  and  the  average  death  rate  per 


annum. 


NEAR  MAblSONYILLE,  OHIO  21 

There  exists  very  little  reliable  data  concerning  the  death  rate 
of  modern  primitive  peoples.  However,  the  following  method  of 
approximation  seems  legitimate  in  this  instance.  The  propor¬ 
tions  of  different  ages  in  the  burials  of  the  cemetery  will  be  com¬ 
pared  with  the  mortality  statistics  for  different  ages  in  various 
European  countries.  If  we  find  the  constituent  age  proportions 
agreeing  closely  with  those  of  some  European  country  of  which 
the  average  annual  death  rate  is  known,  it  may  reasonably  be 
concluded  that  the  annual  death  rates  are  also  approximately  the 
same. 

Fortunately,  Dr.  Metz  carefully  recorded  the  approximate  age 
in  the  case  of  more  than  five-sixths  of  the  burials  he  found. 


Sex  and  Age 

Adult  Adult  Adult  Adol.  Child. 

Year  Sex  undeter.  Male  Female  Age  18-11  10-3  Infants 

1879  .  114  21  10  8  75  3 

1880  .  25  59  53  10  56  30 

1881  .  10  15  12  1  10  9 

149  95  75  19  141  42  Total  521 

Percent .  28.6  18.2  14.4  3.7  27.1  8.1  100.00 


In  this  connection  the  following  table  will  be  instructive. 

Age  at  Death 

Aver.  Annual 


Place 

Year 

Age  0-10 

10-20 

20+ 

Year 

Death  Rate 

Italy . 

1872-77 

52.37 

4.22 

43.41 

1865-78 

2.99 

France . 

1866-77 

32.28 

4.25 

63.47 

1865-77 

2.46 

England . 

1860-70 

44.23 

4.56 

51.21 

1865-78 

2.20 

Prussia . 

1875-77 

52.43 

3.51 

44.06 

1865-78 

2.72 

Bavaria . 

1871-77 

52.61 

2.22 

45.17 

1865-78 

3.09 

Austria . 

1865-77 

52.38 

4.05 

43.57 

1865-78 

3.18 

Spain . 

1865-70 

51.86 

4.37 

43.77 

1865-70 

3.12 

Russia . 

1870-74 

62.33 

4.13 

33.54 

1865-75 

3.67 

Switzerland. .  . 

1873-77 

36.94 

3.72 

59.33 

1870-78 

2.38 

Madisonville. . 

35.2 

3.7 

61.1 

In  the  above  table  it  should  be  observed  that  the  average  an¬ 
nual  death  rate  in  the  various  European  countries  seems  to  be  cor¬ 
related  closely  with  the  number  of  deaths  per  hundred  under  the 
age  of  ten  years.  Thus,  France,  with  a  low  percentage  of  infant 
and  child  mortality,  has  a  very  low  average  annual  death  rate; 
and  Russia,  with  a  very  high  infant  and  child  mortality,  has  the 


22 


INDIAN  VILLAGE  SITE  AND  CEMETERY 


highest  annual  death  rate.  In  this  table  the  average  annual 
death  rate  seems  to  vary  more  or  less  directly  with  the  child  and 
infant  mortality,  except  in  the  case  of  England,  which  shows  a 
somewhat  lower  death  rate  than  would  be  expected  from  the 
number  of  deaths  per  hundred  under  the  age  of  10  years.  This 
may  be  due  to  the  fact  that  the  average  annual  death  rate  given 
for  England  includes  Wales,  whereas  the  percentage  of  ages  per 
hundred  does  not;  or  that  the  period,  during  which  the  calcula¬ 
tion  of  the  annual  death  rate  is  made,  is  different  from  the  period 
of  calculation  of  the  ages  at  death  per  hundred.  On  the  whole, 
it  appears  legitimate  to  infer  the  approximate  annual  death  rate 
from  the  distribution  of  ages  at  death  per  hundred  deaths. 

Next  it  appears  that  the  distribution  of  ages  at  death  in  per¬ 
centage  of  entire  number  of  burials  recorded  in  Dr.  Metz’s  sample 
of  the  Madisonville  cemetery  agrees  most  closely  with  the  dis¬ 
tribution  of  ages  at  death  per  hundred  in  Switzerland.  The  Madi¬ 
sonville  cemetery  shows  a  mortality  per  hundred  under  10  years 
of  35.2  against  36.94  in  Switzerland;  from  ages  of  10-20  years  3.7 
against  3.72  in  Switzerland;  over  20  years,  61.1  in  Aladisonville 
against  59.33  in  Switzerland.  The  average  annual  death  rate  in 
Switzerland  was  2.38  per  hundred.  We  might,  therefore,  conclude 
that,  the  death  rate  per  annum  in  the  Aladisonville  cemetery 
would  be  approximately  the  same. 

On  the  basis  of  Dr.  Aletz’s  sample  of  521  burials  —  almost  one 
half  of  the  total  burials  recorded  in  the  cemetery  —  the  child  and 
infant  mortality  is  lower  than  in  any  of  the  European  countries 
except  France  during  the  period  recorded.  In  selecting  data  from 
European  countries,  I  have  purposely  chosen  a  period  some  years 
back,  before  the  recent  improvements  in  sanitation  and  medical 
science  brought  about  the  modern  lowering  of  the  death  rate. 
Conditions  in  Europe  at  that  time  more  closely  approximated  the 
primitive,  and  are,  therefore,  more  comparable  with  the  conditions 
of  health  in  an  aboriginal  American  cemetery. 

It  might  be  argued  that  we  ought  to  expect  a  higher  annual 
death  rate  in  a  village  of  Indians,  presumably  engaged  from  time 
to  time  in  warfare,  and  living  under  very  primitive  conditions; 
but  primitive  warfare  is  not  deadly,  and  it  is  probable  that  the 
number  of  deaths  due  to  war  in  pre-Columbian  America  north  of 
Alexico  was  proportionately  smaller  than  in  Europe  at  most 


NEAR  MADISONVILLE,  OHIO 


23 


periods  of  history.  Epidemics  also  were  probably  lacking  in  the 
New  World  before  the  coming  of  the  Europeans. 

We  may  therefore  consider  2.3  per  hundred  as  a  reasonable  ap¬ 
proximation  for  the  average  annual  death  rate  during  the  period 
in  which  the  Madisonville  cemetery  was  used,  and  if  we  base  our 
calculations  on  an  average  annual  death  rate  of  3  per  hundred,  we 
shall  be  making  ample  allowance  for  infant  burials  overlooked  or 
unrecorded. 

Population,  and  Period  of  Use  of  Cemetery.  We  must  next  con¬ 
sider  the  question  of  the  length  of  time  during  which  this  cemetery 
was  used  by  the  Indians.  This  problem  may  be  approached  in 
two  ways  —  through  the  historical  evidence,  and  through  the  evi¬ 
dence  of  the  burials  themselves. 

The  territory  at  the  mouth  of  the  Little  Miami  River  was  first 
colonized  in  1788,  by  a  party  of  18  persons  led  by  Major  Benjamin 
Stites,  within  the  limits  of  a  tract  of  10,000  acres  purchased  by 
Major  Stites  from  Judge  Symmes.  Major  Stites  constructed  a 
log  fort  and  laid  out  the  town  of  Columbia.1 

At  the  time  that  Major  Stites  first  settled  here  there  was  in 
all  probability  no  village  on  the  Madisonville  site.  Cyrus  Thomas 
states  that  Ohio  was  not  inhabited  at  the  time  when  it  first  became 
known  to  Europeans.2  Colonel  M.  F.  Force  says: 3 

In  the  latter  half  of  the  Seventeenth  Century,  after  the  destruction  of  the 
Eries  by  the  Five  Nations  in  1656,  what  is  now  the  State  of  Ohio,  was  un¬ 
inhabited. 

The  earlier  occupants  of  this  region  around  the  mouth  of  the 
Little  Miami  River  seem  to  have  been,  according  to  tradition, 
the  Shawnee.  The  original  home  and  subsequent  migrations  of 
this  powerful  tribe  have  been  a  subject  that  has  aroused  consider¬ 
able  controversy,  into  which  we  shall  not  enter  at  this  time.  It 
can  only  be  remarked  that  if  we  assume  the  Madisonville  Indian 
village  to  have  been  inhabited  in  the  post-Columbian  period  (and 
the  archaeological  evidence  supporting  this  assumption  is  irre¬ 
futable),  the  following  considerations  point  toward  the  Shawnee 
as  its  probable  occupants. 

1  J.  R.  Dodge,  Red  Men  of  the  Ohio  Valley ,  Springfield,  1860,  p.  372. 

2  Cyrus  Thomas,  Indians  in  Historic  Times ,  History  of  North  America,  vol.  ii,  1903,  p.  261 
et  seq. 

3  Cf.  Col.  M.  F.  Force,  Some  Early  Notices  of  the  Indians  of  Ohio ,  p,  238. 


24 


INDIAN  VILLAGE  SITE  AND  CEMETERY 


The  western  Shawnee  of  the  Cumberland  basin  are  first  men¬ 
tioned  in  the  Jesuit  relations  of  1648  under  the  name  of  Ouch- 
aouanag.  In  1670,  as  Chaouanoan,  they  are  described  as  living 
some  distance  southeast  of  their  neighbours,  the  Illinois.  Dodge 
says  of  them : 1 

At  the  period  of  the  settlement  of  Virginia,  they  were  doubtless  the  occu¬ 
pants  of  what  is  now  the  state  of  Kentucky,  from  the  Ohio  River  up  to  the 
Cumberland  Basin,  to  the  country  of  the  Cherokees.  The  main  body,  by 
invitation  of  the  Andastes  and  Miamis,  crossing  the  Ohio  assisted  in  conflicts 
with  the  Five  Nations. 

They  are  supposed  to  have  shared  the  defeat  of  the  Andastes 
and  about  the  year  1672  fled  to  escape  destruction. 

Early  in  the  Eighteenth  Century,  the  Shawnee,  as  a  result  of  a 
war  with  the  Cherokee  and  Chickasaw  in  the  Cumberland  region, 
again  moved  into  Ohio.  According  to  Dodge,  when  West  Virginia 
began  to  be  civilized  they  occupied  the  Scioto  Valley  and  extended 
as  far  west  as  the  Little  Miami  and  Mad  Rivers,  having  been  in¬ 
vited  thither  by  the  Wyandot,  at  the  instigation  of  the  French. 

When  the  region  about  the  mouth  of  the  Little  Miami  River 
was  colonized  in  1788,  the  Shawnee  were  still  in  the  vicinity,  ac¬ 
cording  to  a  quotation  from  Judge  Burnet’s  note  by  Dodge: 2 

During  these  transactions  the  Judge  was  visited  by  a  number  of  Indians 
from  a  camp  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Stite’s  settlement.  One  of  them,  a 
Shawnee  chief,  had  many  complaints  to  make  of  the  frauds  practised  on  them 
by  the  white  traders. 

The  archaeological  evidence  as  to  contact  with  Europeans, 
yielded  by  the  burials  in  the  cemetery,  seems  to  indicate  that  the 
inhabitants  were  influenced  by  white  culture  to  a  very  slight  de¬ 
gree,  only  at  the  close  of  the  period  during  which  the  site  was  in¬ 
habited.  A  few  glass  beads  and  a  few  bits  of  iron  and  brass  in  the 
most  recent  portion  of  the  cemetery  are  the  only  traces  of  Euro¬ 
pean  contact. 

Traders  began  to  filter  through  this  region  about  1750.  The 
inhabitants  of  the  Madisonville  site  may  have  been  an  outlying 
group  of  the  Shawnee  of  the  Cumberland  region  who  were  ex¬ 
pelled  from  Ohio  about  1705-15.  There  is  further  the  possibility 
that  this  was  a  Shawnee  village,  the  occupation  of  which  termi- 


1  Op.  cit.,  p.  22  et  seq. 


5  Op.  cit.,  p.  374. 


NEAR  MADISONVILLE,  OHIO 


25 


nated  at  the  time  when  the  tribe  was  first  driven  southward  out 
of  Ohio  after  the  defeat  by  the  Five  Nations  in  1672.  It  scarcely 
seems  probable  that  this  cemetery  could  have  belonged  to  a 
Shawnee  village  of  the  subsequent  migration  northward,  which 
took  place  about  1750,  since  the  site  was  apparently  occupied  un- 
intermittently  for  generations,  and  there  is  not  sufficient  time  be¬ 
tween  1750  and  the  period  of  European  colonization  of  the  Little 
Miami  Valley  to  permit  the  growth  of  such  a  necropolis.  Further, 
it  seems  that  a  Shawnee  settlement  subsequent  to  1750  ought  to 
show  more  traces  of  European  contact  than  are  exhibited  here. 
Moreover  we  are  informed  that  the  Shawnee  were  entirely  no¬ 
madic  bands  at  the  time  of  the  first  coming  of  the  traders,  but  the 
archaeological  evidence  points  to  a  sedentary  population  for  this 
site.  Finally,  if  we  are  to  trust  the  historical  tradition,  Ohio  was 
uninhabited  in  the  latter  part  of  the  Seventeenth  Century. 

It  should  be  understood  quite  clearly  that  the  only  reason  for 
connecting  this  cemetery  with  the  Shawnee  tribe  lies  in  the  fact 
that  the  historical  traditions  mention  no  other  tribe  as  occupying 
this  general  region  during  the  probable  period  of  the  occupation 
of  the  Madisonville  village  and  cemetery  site.  As  we  know 
practically  nothing  of  the  archaeology  and  physical  anthropology 
of  the  Shawnee,  it  is  impossible  either  to  verify  this  tradition  or 
to  refute  it.  It  is  equally  possible  that  the  site  under  consideration 
may  have  been  inhabited  by  some  other  tribe  concerning  which 
local  historical  records  are  silent. 

If  we  assume  that  Madisonville  was  a  Shawnee  site,  there  are 
then  two  possibilities  as  to  the  period  of  its  occupation.  Either 
it  was  occupied  up  to  about  the  middle  of  the  Eighteenth  Century 
or  for  a  period  anterior  to  1672.  The  latter  seems  the  more  prob¬ 
able. 

A  priori  it  seems  unlikely  that,  considering  the  movements 
of  tribes  in  early  post-Columbian  times,  any  Indian  village  in  this 
region  would  be  occupied  continuously  for  more  than  one  hundred 
years.  But  the  Madisonville  cemetery  must  have  been  used  for  a 
very  long  time,  since  a  considerable  change  in  burial  customs  took 
place  within  the  period  of  its  utilization.  Contracted  burials  and 
burials  in  the  sitting  posture  were  found  only  in  the  oldest  portion 
of  the  cemetery  —  the  extreme  southwestern  portion.  There 
are  a  number  of  mounds  in  the  vicinity  of  the  cemetery  and  these 


26 


INDIAN  VILLAGE  SITE  AND  CEMETERY 


almost  certainly  antedate  the  necropolis,  although  it  cannot  be 
stated  with  certainty  that  the  same  Indian  group  was  responsible 
for  both  forms  of  burial.  In  the  more  recent  portion  of  the  ceme¬ 
tery  the  majority  of  skeletons  were  buried  unaccompanied  by 
artifacts  and  there  are  occasional  finds  of  objects  indicating 
European  contact. 

But  the  strongest  evidence  of  a  long  continued  use  of  the  ceme¬ 
tery  seems  to  be  afforded  by  the  very  large  number  of  burials  that 
have  been  disturbed  in  order  to  make  room  for  later  interments. 
Not  only  were  there  found  frequent  instances  in  which  one  body 
was  laid  in  a  grave  over  some  portion  of  an  earlier  grave,  but 
even  more  commonly  an  old  grave  was  cleared  out  and  its  con¬ 
tents  deposited  in  a  heap  in  a  corner  of  the  new  grave  or  nearby. 
Some  of  these  “  bunched  ”  burials  may  be  the  remains  of  those 
who  died  away  from  home  and  whose  bones  were  subsequently 
interred  in  the  local  cemetery,  but  in  most  instances  they  are 
probably  due  to  the  necessity  of  finding  room  in  the  sacred  bury¬ 
ing  ground,  which  brought  about  the  disturbance  of  the  earlier 
burials  by  the  late  dwellers  on  the  site. 

Now  it  seems  very  improbable  that  people  who  buried  their 
dead  with  the  comparatively  elaborate  funeral  furniture  which  is 
found  in  many  of  the  earlier  graves  in  this  cemetery,  would  be 
likely  to  desecrate  the  graves  of  their  ancestors  within  the  time 
when  the  identity  of  the  individuals  who  occupied  the  various 
graves  could  be  remembered.  In  other  words  a  man  would  be 
loathe  to  disturb  the  remains  of  his  great-grandfather,  as  long  as 
he  knew  where  that  ancestor  was  buried.  Allowing  twenty  years 
to  a  generation  it  is  probable  that  the  fifth  generation  would  have 
been  entered  upon  before  all  the  members  of  the  first  were  dead 
and  their  burial  places  forgotten.  If  this  argument  is  valid,  it 
would  then  seem  that  the  minimum  period  which  could  be  con¬ 
sidered  to  have  elapsed  between  the  first  burials  in  the  cemetery 
and  the  subsequent  ones,  to  make  room  for  which  the  former  were 
dislodged,  must  have  been  between  eighty  and  one  hundred  years. 

But,  as  has  been  stated  above,  it  seems  improbable  that  any 
Indian  group  during  this  general  period  of  tribal  movements 
would  have  occupied  the  same  site  continuously  for  much  more 
than  one  hundred  years.  Therefore,  we  may  accept  one  hundred 
years  as  the  approximate  length  of  time  during  which  the  Madison- 


NEAR  MADISONVILLE,  OHIO 


27 


ville  village  site  was  inhabited.  This  may  perhaps  be  considered 
a  minimum  estimate.  Assuming  the  total  number  of  burials  in 
the  cemetery  to  have  been  about  1350  and  the  annual  death  rate 
to  have  been  about  3  per  hundred,  a  village  of  450  to  500  inhab¬ 
itants  would  have  been  sufficient  to  fill  this  cemetery  in  a  century. 

We  may  be  able  to  secure  some  check  on  this  estimate  of  the  size 
of  the  village  by  considering  the  house  remains  on  the  site  ad¬ 
joining  the  cemetery.  In  1879  Dr.  Metz  excavated  four  hut 
circles,  and  in  1882  Professor  Putnam  excavated  four  more.  Those 
excavated  by  Professor  Putnam  varied  in  diameter  from  40  to  60 
feet.  It  is  therefore  evident  that  there  were  at  least  eight  com¬ 
munal  houses  in  the  village,  although  these  may  not  all  have  been 
contemporaneous.  Each  of  these  communal  houses  must  have 
been  the  home  of  grandparents,  parents,  and  children,  averaging 
forty  to  fifty  individuals  to  the  house.  Taking  the  lower  figure, 
we  should  have  a  total  of  320  inhabitants  for  the  8  houses,  if  they 
were  occupied  at  the  same  time.  But  it  is  pretty  clear  that  Pro¬ 
fessor  Putnam  and  Dr.  Metz  did  not  excavate  all  of  the  hut  circles 
on  the  site.  There  were  at  least  four  others  in  the  group  north¬ 
east  of  the  cemetery.  Twelve  such  houses  should  contain  450  to 
500  inhabitants. 

This  group  of  hut  circles  to  the  northeast  would  probably  rep¬ 
resent  the  location  of  the  latest  village  on  the  site.  The  sites  of 
the  earlier  houses  are  indicated  by  the  hearths  found  from  time 
to  time  by  the  excavators  in  the  various  portions  of  the  cemetery. 
The  original  settlement  probably  was  on  the  southwestern  corner 
of  the  plateau.  The  dead  were  buried  about  the  houses,  and  as 
rubbish  and  graves  accumulated,  the  house  sites  gradually  moved 
northeastward. 

It  thus  appears  that  this  cemetery  was  probably  the  burying 
place  of  a  village  from  450  to  500  in  population  for  a  period  of 
about  a  century. 

THE  CACHE-PITS 

Discovery.  The  cache-pits,  called  “  ash-pits  ”  by  Dr.  Metz 
and  the  other  excavators  after  him,  are  scarcely  inferior  in  interest 
and  importance  to  the  burials.  The  first  of  these  was  explored 
by  Dr.  Metz  on  April  1,  1879.  The  first  cache-pit  to  be  described 
fully  was  dug  on  April  22  of  the  same  year.  Of  it  Dr.  Metz  says 
in  his  field  notes : 


28 


INDIAN  VILLAGE  SITE  AND  CEMETERY 


An  ash-pit  was  excavated  to  a  depth  of  4|  feet  and  a  diameter  of  3§  feet. 
The  sides  and  bottom  showed  no  evidence  of  the  action  of  fire.  It  appears 
that  the  pits  had  been  dug  and  the  ashes  put  in  them  as  ashes  to  a  depth  of 
2|  feet  .  .  .  In  it  were  numerous  bone  implements,  shells,  and  animal  remains, 
none  of  which  bare  any  traces  of  the  action  of  fire.  A  few  fragments  of  charred 
bones  that  had  probably  been  in  the  ashes  previous  to  their  deposition  here 
were  also  found. 

Hereafter,  Dr.  Metz  carefully  explored  every  cache-pit  encount¬ 
ered,  noting,  in  most  cases,  the  depth,  diameter,  stratification  of 
contents,  and  character  of  associated  objects. 

Number  and  Depth  of  Cache-pits.  The  following  table  gives 
the  totals  of  pits  recorded  by  the  excavators  in  their  field  notes 
that  are  in  the  possession  of  the  Museum. 


Number  of  Cache-pits 


C.  L.  Metz, 

1879-81 

429 

J.  It.  Swanton 

1897 

177 

It  it  tt 

1882 

12 

R.  E.  Merwin, 

1907-08 

247 

F.  W.  Putnam, 

1882 

7 

B.  W.  Merwin, 

1911 

11S 

Total 

990 

In  order  to  give  an  accurate  idea  of  the  main  dimensions  of 
these  pits,  the  data  in  regard  to  those  excavated  by  Dr.  Metz  in 
1879  have  been  tabulated.  By  far  the  majority  were  round  or  oval 
in  shape.  The  few  oblong  ones  have  been  omitted  from  considera¬ 
tion  in  the  following  tables. 

Diameter  of  Cache-pits  ,  in 


Less  than  2  ft. 

2  ft.  2  ft.  6  in. 

3  ft.  3  ft.  6  in.  4  ft. 

and 

over 

Number .  1 

6 

19 

70  36  13 

2 

Total  147 

Per  cent .  .7 

4.1 

13.0 

47.6  24.5  8.8 

1.4  Mode  3  ft. 

Depth  of  Cache-pits 

Depth  of  Ashes 

Depth 

Number 

Per  cent  Depth 

Number 

Per  cent. 

2  ft.  6  in. -2  ft.  11  in. 

i 

.7 

1  ft.-l  ft.  5  in. 

9 

7.9 

3  ft.— 3  ft.  5  in. 

16 

10.8 

1  ft.  6  in.-l  ft.  11 

in. 

20 

17.7 

3  ft.  6  in. -3  ft.  11  in. 

12 

8.1 

2  ft. — 2  ft.  5  in. 

24 

21.1 

4  ft. -4  ft.  5  in. 

22 

14.9 

2  ft.  6  in.-2  ft.  11 

in. 

18 

15.9 

4  ft.  6  in.-4  ft.  11  in. 

14 

9.4 

3  ft.— 3  ft.  5  in. 

22 

19.1 

5  ft.— 5  ft.  5  in. 

32 

21.6 

3  ft.  6  in. -3  ft.  11  in. 

9 

7.9 

5  ft.  6  in. -5  ft.  11  in. 

27 

18.2 

4  ft.-4  ft.  5  in. 

5 

4.4 

6  ft.— 6  ft.  11  in. 

22 

14.9 

4  ft.  6  in-4  ft.  11 

in. 

4 

3.9- 

7  ft. 

2 

1.4 

5  ft. 

2 

1.7 

Total . . 

.  148 

Total . 

.  113 

NEAR  MADISONVILLE,  OHIO  29 

It  will  be  observed  from  the  above  table  that  almost  three- 
fourths  of  the  pits  were  between  3  feet  and  3^  feet  in  diameter; 
that  the  depths  varied  greatly  but  were  in  the  majority  of  cases 
from  4|  feet  to  6  feet;  that  the  depth  of  ashes  was  usually  from 
If  feet  to  3 1  feet. 

Contents  and  Stratification.  Some  of  the  pits  were  stratified 
and  some  were  not.  In  order  to  give  a  clear  idea  of  the  stratifica¬ 
tion  and  contents  of  typical  pits  descriptions  have  been  copied 
from  Dr.  Metz’s  notes. 

Cache-pit  396 

Depth  5  ft.  3  in.;  diameter  3  ft.  3  in. 

10  inches  leaf  mould 
28  inches  sand  and  gravel 
25  inches  ashes 

Contents:  animal  remains,  shells,  sherds,  burned  limestone,  flint  and  bone 
relics. 

Cache-pit  400 

Depth  5  ft.  10  in.;  diameter  3  ft.  2  in. 

10  inches  leaf  mould 
12  inches  sand 
48  inches  ashes 

Contents:  burned  limestone,  animal  remains,  flints,  sherds,  shells,  one  piece 
of  copper. 

Cache-pit  401 

Depth  6  ft.  8  in.;  diameter  3  ft.  3  in. 

10  inches  leaf  mould 
24  inches  sand 
46  inches  ashes 

Contents:  animal  remains,  burned  limestone,  shells,  perforated  unios,  a 
large  quantity  of  deer  skulls,  awls,  cylinders. 

Cache-pit  402 

Depth  5  ft.  6  in.;  diameter  3  ft.  2  in. 

10  inches  leaf  mould 

5  inches  sand 

19  inches  yellow  sand  and  ashes 

3  inches  yellow  sand 

19  inches  sand  and  ashes 

4  inches  sand 

6  inches  ashes 

6  inches  ashes  in  depression  in  middle  of  bottom 
Contents:  animal  remains,  burned  limestone,  large  sherds  of  pottery,  shells, 
elkhorn  implement,  awls,  flints,  record  stick. 


30 


INDIAN  VILLAGE  SITE  AND  CEMETERY 


Cache-pit  404 

Depth  4  ft.  1  in.;  diameter  4  ft. 

10  inches  leaf  mould 
40  inches  ashes 

Contents:  two  bushels  of  snail  shells. 

Cache-pit  409 

Depth  5  ft.  2  in.;  diameter  3  ft.  10  in. 

10  inches  leaf  mould 
30  inches  sand 
22  inches  ashes 

Contents:  animal  remains  and  fish  hook. 

Cache-pit  411 

Depth  5  ft.  6  in.;  diameter  4  ft. 

10  inches  leaf  mould 
32  inches  sand 
3  inches  yellow  sand 

10  inches  sand  and  ashes 

11  inches  ashes 

6  inches  of  ashes  in  depression  in  bottom 
Contents:  animal  remains,  a  stone  pipe,  and  an  elkhorn  implement. 

The  following  cache-pits  are  less  typical  but  present  features 
of  special  interest: 

Extract  from  Dr.  Metz’s  notes,  August  27,  1879: 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  “finds”  since  the  prosecution  of  the  work  on 
this  cemetery  was  a  large  quantity  (4  or  5  bushels)  of  burnt  corn,  in  a  pit 
which  was  opened  and  explored  August  26  and  27.  The  shape  of  the  pit  was 
oblong  and  contracted  toward  the  center,  a  horizontal  section  showing  some¬ 
what  like  a  figure  8.  Its  dimensions  were:  length  6  ft.  8  in.;  diameter  3  feet 
at  each  end;  total  depth  6  ft.  3  in. 

Beginning  at  the  bottom  the  contents  were  as  follows: 

(1)  A  layer  of  bowlders,  pottery  sherds,  ashes,  with  a  few  animal  bones, 
about  6  inches  in  thickness. 

(2)  Above  this  a  layer  of  completely  carbonized  corn  on  the  cob. 

(3)  Matting,  composed  of  twigs  and  coarse  grasses  —  two  inches. 

(4)  Then  about  4  bushels  of  shelled  corn,  also  completely  carbonized.  The 
corn  and  floor  of  bowlders  occupied  one  half  of  the  pit  or  one  loop  of 
the  figure  8,  its  superficial  area  being  a  circle  of  about  three  feet  in 
diameter,  its  depth  10  inches. 

(5)  Above  the  corn  was  a  layer  of  coarsely  woven  matting  composed  of 
grass,  cornstalks  and  twigs,  also  completely  charred,  depth  4  inches. 

(6)  Next  came  a  layer  of  ashes  10  inches  in  thickness,  intermingled  with 
which  were  bones  of  deer,  elk,  bear,  racoon,  opossum,  turkey,  mink, 
woodchuck,  squirrel,  and  beaver,  together  with  unio  shells  of  various 
species. 


NEAR  MADISONVILLE,  OHIO 


31 


(7)  Fifteen  inches  of  gravelly  clay  also  containing  numerous  anima  re¬ 
mains  with  occasional  implements  of  flint,  bone  and  stone,  anl  un¬ 
finished  stone  pipe  representing  a  bear  sitting  on  his  haunches,  and 
sherds  of  pottery. 

(8)  Two  feet  of  black  leaf  mould. 


FEET 


Fig.  1.  Madisonville  Site 

Cross-sections  of  abandoned  and  filled  cache-pits  from  Dr.  Metz’s  note-books;  a,  Cache- 
pit  used  for  burial  purposes,  opened  January  21,  1880;  6,  Pit  opened  August  8,  1881; 
c,  Pit  opened  in  May,'  1881;  d,  Pit  opened  August  26-27,  1879.  Aside  from  the  materials 
shown  in  the  cross-sections,  the  pits  contained  potsherds,  bones  of  various  animals,  im¬ 
plements  and  other  objects  of  stone,  bone  and  antler. 

It  is  quite  obvious  that  this  peculiar  shaped  pit  was  really  two 
intersecting  and  independent  round  pits,  one  of  which  had  been 
used  for  a  corn  cache;  a  cross-section  of  this  is  given  in  figure  1,  d. 

Cache-pit  377 

Depth  5  ft.  8  in. ;  diameter  3  ft. 

10  inches  leaf  mould 

38  inches  ashes  containing  animal  remains 
6  inches  charcoal  and  animal  remains 
4  inches  matting 
12  inches  corn  cobs 

Contents :  “  At  a  depth  of  4  ft.  4  in.  a  layer  of  charred  animal  remains  was 
found  and  below  this  a  layer  of  matting  4  inches  deep,  and  below  this 
matting  carbonized  corn  cobs.  On  the  matting  a  layer  of  plaited  grass 
rope  was  found  [figure  1,  c]. 

Mr.  Swanton  found  a  layer  of  corn  cobs  in  the  bottom  of  pit  I, 
33,  and  small  quantities  of  corn  in  other  pits. 

A  layer  of  corn  2  inches  thick  and  4  feet  from  the  surface  was  found  in 
cache-pit  II,  23.  Two  feet,  8  inches  from  the  surface  of  the  hard-pan  was  a 
concreted  mass  of  gravel  discolored  by  fire  and  about  9  inches  thick.  The  mass 
seems  to  have  become  solidified  under  the  influence  of  a  hot  fire  though 
whether  this  fire  occurred  before  the  concretion  was  thrown  into  the  cache-pit 
or  subsequently  could  not  be  determined. 


32 


INDIAN  VILLAGE  SITE  AND  CEMETERY 


Fauna  Represented  in  the  Cache-pits.  The  following  is  a  quota¬ 
tion  from  Mr.  Swanton’s  report: 

By  studying  the  contents  of  over  one  hundred  cache-pits,  twenty-one 
species  of  animals  were  identified,  one  species  of  bird,  two  of  turtles,  and  two 
of  fish.  These  are  deer,  bear,  dog,  elk,  buffalo,  racoon,  opossum,  beaver, 
porcupine,  woodchuck,  lynx,  fox,  puma,  wolf,  otter,  squirrel,  skunk,  mole, 
rabbit,  marten,  badger,  turkey,  leather-back  turtle,  turtle,  catfish  and 
perch  (?).  Deer  bones  overbalanced  all  others  in  the  proportion  of  at  least 
three  to  one.  Few  badger,  squirrel,  skunk,  wolf,  puma,  and  rabbit  bones  were 


;.  Black  earth 

SlACR  EARTH  -  . 

;  bl;a  c  k  Dearth'  ■  :\ 

-  v“A  v  *•*  j' 

CLAY 

A  H  E  S 

W  CLAYVno  ASHES:  V 

V  M  IX 1 0  “EARTH 

CLAY 

t S  I- D  C  "  A  BCOAiAT 

SLACK  earth 

b 

E 

■  charcoal ..o CORN 

0 

i  a  3 

4  5 

C 

a 

reiT 

Fio.  2.  Madisonville  Site 

Cross-sections  of  abandoned  and  filled  cache-pits  from  Mr.  Swanton's  note-books;  a.  Pit  6, 
Trench  IV;  b,  Pit  54,  Trench  I;  c,  Pit  15,  Trench  II;  d,  Pit  64,  Trench  I. 


found.  In  the  case  of  the  rabbit  this  is  very  remarkable  since  rabbits  are  very 
plentiful  in  the  region. 

Of  the  mole  and  marten  only  one  skull  each  was  found,  the  latter  asso¬ 
ciated  with  a  burial;  of  the  otter  only  two  skulls,  also  associated  with  burials, 
and  a  fragment  of  a  third  were  found. 

Below  is  an  analysis  of  two  pits  showing  approximately  the  proportion  of 
bones  belonging  to  each  species  which  they  contained. 


•Cache-pit  III,  6 

Deer . 

80  per  cent 

Cache-pit  III,  8 

Deer . 

75  per  cent 

Turkey . 

8 

Dog . 

7.5 

Bear . 

2.5  “ 

Elk . 

7.5 

Elk . 

2.5  “ 

Bear. . . 1 . 

5.0 

Dog . 

2.5 

Beaver,  racoon,  tur 

- 

Turtle  (2  species) 

2.5  “ 

key,  turtle,  fish 

5.0 

Racoon . 

Beaver . 

0.5 

0.5 

Total . 

100.00  “ 

•Opossum,  puma,  fish, 
fox,  otter,  wood¬ 
chuck,  badger . 

1.0  “ 

Total 


100.00 


NEAR  MADISONVILLE,  OHIO 


33 


The  finding  of  the  skulls  of  the  marten  and  otter  with  burials  without  other 
bones  of  these  animals  indicates  that  they  formed  portions  of  medicine  bags 
made  of  the  whole  skin  of  these  animals  with  skull  attached. 

Similar  bags  of  otter  skin  were  used  in  the  well-known  Shell  Society  and  the 
presence  of  these  skulls  seems  to  indicate  that  this  ceremony  was  known  to 
these  Indians. 

The  shells  found  belonged  principally  to  the  genus  Unio.  Most 
of  the  species  having  smooth  shells  could  not  be  identified,  but  of  the 
following  there  can  be  no  doubt:  Unio  rectus  (Lamarck),  vermi- 
cosus,  tuber culatus,  ovatus,  undulatus,  cornutus  (Barnes),  alntus 
(Say),  Margitana  rugosa  (Barnes).  One  small  species  of  the  uni- 

»  b  c  d 


Fig.  3.  Madisonville  Site 

Cross-sections  of  abandoned  and  filled  cache-pits  in  Trench  D,  from  R.  E.  Merwin’s  note¬ 
books.  Mr.  Merwin’s  cross-sections  were  the  first  to  show  that  probably  most  of  the  pits 
were  dug  through  a  stratum  of  hard-pan,  and  into  the  substratum  of  sand  which  afforded 
excellent  drainage  and  served  to  keep  the  contents  of  the  caches  dry. 


a 


valve  ( Fulgur  carica )  was  found  in  addition  to  a  small  sea  uni¬ 
valve  Marginella  apicina.  The  latter  species  is  found  on  the  Gulf 
Coast  and  the  shores  of  the  Carolinas. 

Artifacts  from  the  Cache-pits.  The  following  extracts  from  the 
notes  of  Mr.  B.  W.  Merwin  give  a  sufficient  idea  of  the  number 
and  character  of  artifacts  found  in  typical  cache-pits. 

Cache-pit  51,  Trench  H 
Depth  of  leaf  mould,  8  in. 

Depth  to  hard-pan,  1  ft.  8  in. 

Depth  to  bottom,  5  ft.  2  in. 

Diameter  at  hard-pan,  3  ft.  8  in. 

Specimens:  1  bone  scraper,  3  antler  cylinders,  1  antler  point,  2  worked 
antlers,  1  fragment  bone  scraper,  1  notched  rib,  1  celt,  1  fragment  celt, 
1  perforated  shell,  1  flint  point,  1  flint  scraper,  2  worked  stones,  100  bones, 
75  unworked  stones,  40  shells,  25  flint  flakes,  40  potsherds. 


34 


INDIAN  VILLAGE  SITE  AND  CEMETERY 


Cache-pit  7,  Trench  K 

Depth  of  leaf  mould,  5  in. 

Depth  to  hard-pan,  1  ft.  1  in. 

Depth  to  bottom,  4  ft.  8  in. 

Diameter  at  hard-pan,  3  ft.  2  in. 

Specimens:  1  worked  beaver  tooth,  1  bone  bead,  1  long  bone  perforator, 

1  fragment  bone  scraper,  1  perforated  shell,  1  small  whetstone,  1  per¬ 
forated  bone,  150  unworked  bones,  30  stones,  25  shells,  30  potsherds, 
15  flint  flakes. 

Cache-pit  10,  Trench  H 

Depth  of  leaf  mould,  9  in. 

Depth  to  hard-pan,  1  ft.  9  in. 

Depth  to  bottom,  3  ft.  7  in. 

Diameter  at  hard-pan,  2  ft.  8  in. 

Specimens:  2  antler  cylinders,  2  fragments  bone  scrapers,  1  bone  perfora¬ 
tor,  5  flint  points,  8  reject  flint  points,  1  worked  bone,  1  fragment  pipe, 

2  rough  hammerstones,  1  grinder,  fragments  of  bones  of  two  kinds  of 
dog,  100  stones,  175  bones,  50  potsherds,  40  flint  flakes,  30  shells,  4 
quarts  charred  wood. 

Pit  filled  with  black  earth  and  clay  with  a  5  inch  layer  of  bones  and  ashes 
about  2  ft.  9  in.  from  the  surface. 

Occasionally  pieces  of  copper  or  ornaments  of  copper  were  found 
in  the  pits.  These  finds  were  more  common  in  the  portion  of  the 
cemetery  excavated  by  Dr.  Metz.  Beads  were  the  commonest 
objects  of  copper  found  by  Mr.  Swanton  in  the  pits.  From  pit 
I,  50,  were  recovered  three  copper  discs  made  by  clinching  thin 
pieces  of  copper  over  bone.  In  pit  I,  55,  was  a  small  copper  orna¬ 
ment  4  inches  long,  in  shape  of  a  serpent. 

Iron  was  of  very  infrequent  occurrence  in  cache-pits.  On  Septem¬ 
ber  19,  1879,  Dr.  Metz  found  a  piece  of  an  iron  hatchet  or  toma¬ 
hawk,  13  inches  below  the  surface  in  the  leaf  mould  between  two 
cache-pits.  Mr.  Swanton  found  a  flat  piece  2  inches  long  by  1^ 
inches  wide  in  the  first  pit  he  opened.  This  was  3  feet  1  inch  be¬ 
low  the  surface  and  at  least  1  foot  below  the  level  of  the  hard-pan. 
In  pit  I,  66,  another  piece  was  encountered  at  a  depth  of  3  feet 
below  the  level  of  the  hard-pan  and  4§  feet  from  the  surface. 

R.  E.  Merwin  found  an  iron  ring  in  pit  98,  Trench  D.  The  ring 
was  27  inches  below  the  surface  of  the  ground,  the  leaf  mould 
being  4  inches  in  depth.  There  was  no  evidence  of  its  intrusive 
origin  as  there  was  no  root  hole  above  it.  Skeleton  65  was  buried 
with  its  head  in  the  cache-pit  on  the  level  with  the  ring,  but  the 
ring  was  21  inches  from  the  skull. 


NEAR  MADISONVILLE,  OHIO 


35 


B.  W.  Merwin  found  a  piece  of  iron  in  pit  27,  Trench  I.  This 
was  a  perforated  piece  of  iron,  little  oxidized.  It  came  from  a 
depth  of  one  foot  eight  inches,  the  soil  above  it  being  black  earth 
mixed  with  potsherds  and  shells.  Merwin  thought  that  it  must 
have  worked  down  a  root  hole,  as  there  was  a  root  hole  5  inches 
away,  about  3  inches  in  diameter. 


r 

« 

o 

z 

2 

Q 

< 

z 

Q 

; 

p'Tyy  mol/loo’;;.'. 

^  black  .  EARTH  ;  -.' 

■  -  ■ 

8 LACK  f  ft K T ff' 

v; :  b  lac  k  '  e  a  « r  h  ?.  -  - 

a> 

d 

Fig.  4.  Madisonville  Site 

Cross-section  of  abandoned  and  filled  cache-pits  from  B.  W.  Merwin’s  note-books;  a,  Pit  3, 
Trench  G;  b,  Pit  24a,  Trench  H;  c,  Pit  30a,  Trench  I;  d,  Pit  26,  Trench  I.  In  common 
with  nearly  all  pits  of  this  site,  potsherds,  various  implements  and  the  bones  of  animals 
were  found  in  the  refuse  with  which  they  were  filled. 


Mr.  Swanton  found  fragments  of  blue  glass  beads  in  three 
cache-pits  (I,  44;  I,  64;  IV,  31).  Mr.  B.  W.  Merwin  also  found 
a  blue  glass  bead  in  one  of  the  pits  that  he  excavated. 

Form  of  the  Cache-pits.  The  great  majority  of  the  pits  were 
round  or  oval  in  shape,  but  Dr.  Metz  discovered  some  that  were 
oblong.  He  records  about  ten  of  these.  The  first  of  this  shape, 
opened  May  19,  1879,  was  3  ft.  2  in.  in  depth,  7  ft.  3  in.  long, 
and  4  ft.  6  in.  wide.  It  contained  16  inches  of  ashes.  The  follow¬ 
ing  is  his  description  of  one  of  the  oblong  pits : 


October  17,  1879 

Large  oblong  cache-pit.  Depth  4  ft.  3  in.,  length  8  ft.,  width  6  ft.  5  in. 
Contents:  leaf  mould  10  in. 

Ashes  and  sand  10  in. 

Pure  ashes  15  in. 

Sand  6  in. 

Ashes,  charcoal,  and  bowlders,  10  in. 

Specimens :  one  grooved  stone  hammer,  one  elkhorn  implement,  one  large 
piece  of  elkhorn,  broken  bowlders,  potsherds,  bear  cranium,  flints. 


36 


INDIAN  VILLAGE  SITE  AND  CEMETERY 


It  will  be  observed  that  the  contents  of  the  oblong  pits  are  not 
different  in  character  from  the  round  ones.  Apparently  the  later 
investigators  did  not  find  any  of  these  oblong  pits. 

The  circular  and  oval  cache-pits  occasionally  had  a  larger  di¬ 
ameter  at  the  bottom  than  at  the  top  and  often  the  reverse.  Bot¬ 
tle-shaped  cache-pits  also  occurred. 

Grouping  in  Relation  to  Burials.  The  cache-pits  were  often 
found  in  groups,  as  may  be  seen  from  the  plan  of  the  cemetery 
(plate  30).  Sometimes  two  or  more  pits  were  dug  so  close  together 
that  their  sides  intersected. 

Generally  speaking  the  site  was  divided  into  portions  rich  in 
cache-pits  and  with  very  few  burials  on  the  one  hand,  and  parts 
with  many  burials  and  few  pits  on  the  other.  It  seems  that  for 
the  most  part  the  pits  are  not  connected  with  the  burials  except 
fortuitously.  In  a  few  instances,  which  have  been  dealt  with 
under  the  consideration  of  the  burials,  bodies  were  buried  in  the 
cache-pits,  simply  because  the  empty  pit  offered  a  convenient 
ready-made  grave.  In  other  cases  bodies  were  buried  over  these 
pits,  or  cache-pits  were  dug  through  burials.  Yet  there  is  noth¬ 
ing  that  points  to  any  special  relationship  between  the  graves  and 
the  pits. 

On  the  other  hand  there  is  no  doubt  at  all  that  the  graves  and 
the  pits  were  made  by  one  and  the  same  people  during  the  same 
period.  The  identity  of  artifacts  in  the  pits  with  those  found  in 
the  graves  establishes  this  fact  beyond  question. 

Purpose  of  the  Cache-pits.  The  earlier  excavators  seem  to  have 
considered  the  existence  of  this  large  number  of  pits,  laboriously 
dug  down  through  the  hard-pan,  as  more  or  less  of  a  mystery.  Yet 
there  is  no  evidence  of  their  having  subserved  any  obscure  esoteric 
purpose.  On  the  contrary  it  seems  that  they  were  dug  for  a  very 
practical  end. 

All  of  the  investigators  note  that  for  the  most  part  the  bottoms 
and  walls  of  the  pits  show  no  trace  of  the  action  of  fire,  but  that 
the  ashes  and  other  charred  debris  seem  to  have  been  dumped 
into  the  pits  after  having  been  subjected  to  the  action  of  fire.  In 
a  few  instances  fires  seem  to  have  been  made  in  partially  filled 
pits,  or  burning  embers  were  emptied  into  the  pits. 

In  the  opinion  of  the  present  writer  the  cache-pits  were  con¬ 
structed  primarily  for  the  storage  of  corn  and  other  goods.  At 


NEAR  MADISONVILLE,  OHIO 


37 


the  harvest  time  the  maize  crop  belonging  to  each  family  was  de¬ 
posited  in  a  number  of  pits  grouped  together  and  located  con¬ 
veniently  near  the  house-site  or  place  of  habitation.  Indeed  these 
pits  may  often  have  been  within  the  houses  or  huts.  In  the  course 
of  the  winter  the  pits  were  emptied  one  after  another  and  the 
empty  pits  became  successively  the  receptacles  into  which  were 
swept  the  accumulating  ashes,  food  remains,  and  other  debris  of 
the  hearth  and  home.  When  a  pit  showed  stratification  of  con¬ 
tents  it  was  because  it  was  filled  with  rubbish  gradually,  and  when 
the  contents  were  unstratified  it  was  due  to  the  dumping  of  a 
large  amount  of  refuse  into  the  pit  at  one  time.  Some  of  the 
stratified  pits  were  probably  left  partially  filled  for  a  considerable 
length  of  time;  fires  were  occasionally  made  in  them,  and  in  a  few 
instances  the  empty  or  partially  filled  pits  were  utilized  as  graves. 

Ample  indication  that  the  pits  were  used  as  granaries  is  afforded 
by  the  two  pits  described  above,  in  which  Dr.  Metz  found  charred 
shelled  corn  and  charred  corn  on  the  cob  covered  with  matting 
(figure  1,  c,  d). 

Historical  evidence  confirms  the  conclusion  that  the  pits  were 
granaries.  Wood  says  in  speaking  of  the  customs  of  the  New 
England  Indians: 1 

Their  corne  being  ripe,  they  gathered  it,  and  drying  it  hard  in  the  Sunne, 
conveighed  it  to  their  barnes,  which  be  great  holes  digged  in  the  ground  in  the 
form  of  a  brass  pot,  seeled  with  rinds  of  trees,  wherein  they  put  their  corne. 

Morgan  also  states  the  following  in  regard  to  the  corn  pits  of 
the  Iroquois: 2 

The  Iroquois  were  accustomed  to  bury  their  surplus  corn,  and  also  their 
charred  green  corn,  in  caches  in  which  the  former  would  preserve  uninjured 
throughout  the  year,  and  the  latter  for  a  much  longer  period.  They  excavated 
a  pit,  made  a  bark  bottom  and  sides,  and  having  deposited  their  corn  within 
it,  a  bark  roof,  water-tight,  was  constructed  over  it,  and  the  whole  covered 
up  with  earth.  Pits  of  charred  corn  are  still  found  near  their  ancient  settle¬ 
ments.  Cured  venison  and  other  meats  were  buried  in  the  same  manner,  except 
that  the  bark  repository  was  lined  with  deer-skins. 

The  above  also  explains  the  reason  for  the  carbonized  condition 
of  the  corn  found  in  the  pits  by  Dr.  Metz. 


1  William  Wood,  New  England's  Prospect,  p.  100. 

2  L.  H.  Morgan,  League  of  the  Iroquois,  p.  319. 


38 


INDIAN  VILLAGE  SITE  AND  CEMETERY 


Additional  evidence  is  furnished  by  Catlin,  who,  in  speaking  of 
the  Mandan  Indians  says:1 

The  green  corn  season  is  one  of  great  festivity  with  them,  and  one  of  much 
importance^  The  greater  part  of  their  crop  is  eaten  during  these  festivals, 
and  the  remainder  is  gathered  and  dried  on  the  cob,  before  it  has  ripened, 
and  packed  away  in  “caches”  (as  the  French  call  them),  holes  in  the  ground, 
some  six  or  seven  feet  deep,  the  insides  of  which  are  somewhat  in  the  form  of  a 
jug,  and  tightly  closed  at  the  top.  The  corn,  and  even  dried  meat  and  pem- 
mican,  are  placed  in  these  caches,  being  packed  tight  around  the  sides,  with 
prairie  grass,  and  effectually  preserved  through  the  severest  winters. 

Alice  C.  Fletcher,  also,  in  speaking  of  the  expeditions  of  the 
Omahas,  says: 2 

If  any  were  so  fortunate  as  to  possess  a  surplus  supply  of  food  or  clothing, 
they  would  store  it  in  a  cache,  which  they  might  either  conceal  or  leave  un¬ 
disguised.  The  cache  was  dug  in  a  dry  place,  sometimes  lined  with  poles, 
but  often  left  with  no  wall  but  the  hard  soil.  The  goods  were  covered  with 
skins,  the  earth  was  thrown  over,  and  the  place  marked  with  piles  of  stones 
—  meat,  corn,  clothing,  and  other  personal  property  were  kept  for  months  in 
this  manner,  and  no  one  disturbed  the  hidden  store. 

That  caches  of  this  character  were  used  by  the  Indians  over  a 
very  wide  area  in  North  America  is  shown  by  their  existence 
among  the  Thompson  Indians  of  British  Columbia.  In  regard  to 
their  methods  of  storing  food,  James  Teit  says:3 

The  most  common  cache  is  the  Indian  cellar.  This  is  used  solely  for  the 
storing  of  berries,  fish,  etc.  A  circular  hole  about  four  feet  in  depth,  and  of  the 
necessary  diameter,  is  dug.  In  it  are  carefully  laid  the  articles  to  be  stored. 
If  these  are  berries  or  roots,  they  are  placed  in  baskets,  and  wrapped  over  with 
birch  bark.  The  roof  is  then  put  on.  It  consists  of  small  poles  laid  closely 
side  by  side  across  the  excavation.  Above  them  are  laid  in  the  same  manner, 
but  at  right  angles,  another  row  of  poles.  The  structure  is  then  covered  with 
pine  needles  and  earth. 

H.  I.  Smith  states  that  pits  which  are  supposed  to  be  the  re¬ 
mains  of  the  cellars  are  found  near  the  ancient  underground 
house-sites  in  the  Thompson  River  region.4 

In  the  mound  region  in  general,  archaeological  confirmation  of 
the  identity  of  the  “  ash-pits  ”  with  caches  mentioned  by  the 
historians  is  not  lacking. 

1  Geo.  Catlin,  North  American  Indians,  vol.  i,  p.  121  et  seq. 

2  Alice  C.  Fletcher,  Tribal  Life  Among  the  Omahas,  Century  Magazine,  January,  1896,  p.  450. 

3  James  Teit.  The  Thompson  Indians  of  British  Columbia,  p.  198  et  seq. 

1  H.  I.  Smith,  Memoirs  American  Museum  Natural  History,  vol.  ii,  no.  6,  p.  403. 


NEAR  MADISONVILLE,  OHIO 


39 


Speaking  of  the  enclosures  in  New  York,  Squier  says: 1 

The  first  feature  which  attracts  notice  upon  entering  them  is  a  number  of 
pits  or  excavations  in  the  earth,  usually  at  points  which  are  most  elevated 
and  dry.  These  pits  are  occasionally  of  considerable  size,  and  are  popularly 
called  “  wells,”  although  nothing  is  more  obvious  than  that  they  could  never 
have  been  designed  for  any  such  purpose.  They  are  usually  3  to  4,  but  some¬ 
times  from  6  to  8,  feet  in  depth,  and  of  proportionate  size  at  the  top.  Their 
purpose  became  sufficiently  evident  upon  excavation.  They  were  the  caches 
in  which  the  former  occupants  of  these  works  deposited  their  stores.  Parched 
corn,  now  completely  carbonized  by  long  exposure,  is  to  be  discovered  in 
considerable  abundance  in  many  of  them.  Instances  fell  under  my  notice 
where  it  has  been  found  untouched  to  the  amount  of  bushels  in  these  primi¬ 
tive  depositories.  Traces  of  the  bark  and  thin  slips  of  wood,  by  which  the 
deposits  were  surrounded,  are  also  frequently  to  be  found. 

Thomas  in  his  work  on  Mound  Explorations  identifies  pits  of 
this  character  with  caches.2 

Finally  Alice  C.  Fletcher  writes  of  the  caches  of  the  Omaha 
Indians  as  follows:3 

Each  family  had  outside  the  lodge  a  cache,  and  some  of  the  families  would 
have  two.  These  caches  would  be  used  sometimes  for  two  or  three  years,  but 
after  a  time  the  posts  would  become  worm-eaten  or  the  rain  get  in  and  if  the 
cache  was  not  repaired,  as  it  occasionally  was,  a  new  one  would  be  built  close 
beside  it  and  the  old  one  taken  for  other  uses  to  be  described.  In  the  cache 
was  kept  the  winter  supply  of  corn,  dried  meat  and  other  provisions  and  the 
gala  dresses  and  ornaments  of  various  kinds.  These  were  kept  in  parfleche 
packs;  also  the  sacred  articles,  such  as  medicine  bags,  or  sacred  bowls,  etc. 
When  a  village  was  attacked  it  was  always  considered  important  to  try  and 
burn  the  caches.  Fire  was  put  in  the  cache  and  the  articles  consumed  in  the 
hole;  sometimes  they  were  only  charred.  A  malicious  person  having  a  grudge 
would  sometimes  take  revenge  by  burning  a  cache. 

The  old  caches  were  used  for  ash-pits.  The  accumulations  of  ashes  in  the 
center  fireplace  (a  circular  depression  in  the  center  of  the  lodge)  would  be 
cleared,  and  the  ashes  thrown  in  the  pit.  So  also  the  bones  and  refuse  of  eat¬ 
ing,  and  of  feasts,  and  the  broken  implements  and  weapons,  worn-out  moccasins, 
and  other  articles.  When  the  pit  was  filled  up  it  was  closed  over  and  another 
one  taken.  The  sites  of  the  old  villages  are  honeycombed  with  these  caches, 
the  Indians  say,  and  I  am  invited  to  examine  them  if  I  like,  the  Indians  laugh¬ 
ing  heartily  at  my  queer  curiosity. 

1  E.  G.  Squier,  Smithsonian  Contributions  to  Knowledge,  vol.  ii,  p.  12  et  seq. 

2  Cf.  Thomas,  Twelfth  Report  Bureau  American  Ethnology,  p.  32  et  seq. 

3  Peabody  Museum  Reports,  vol.  iii,  pp.  357,  358. 


40 


INDIAN  VILLAGE  SITE  AND  CEMETERY 


HEARTHS  AND  OTHER  REMAINS 

Hearths  and  Fire  Places.  J.  R.  Swan  ton  says  in  his  report: 

Hearths  are  formed  by  a  few  stones  laid  side  by  side.  They  were  usually 
a  foot  to  a  foot  and  a  half  in  depth  and  two  to  three  feet  in  diameter,  though 
the  outline  was  by  no  means  always  circular. 

Mr.  Swanton  excavated  thirteen  of  these  hearths  or  fire  places, 
R.  E.  Merwin  describes  four,  and  B.  W.  Merwin  two.  Dr.  Metz 
apparently  did  not  distinguish  the  hearths  from  the  shallower 
cache-pits.  From  the  number  of  burned  stones  which  he,  in  con¬ 
trast  with  the  other  excavators,  describes  as  found  in  the  cache- 
pits,  it  seems  clear  that  the  earlier  inhabitants  of  the  village 
often  dumped  their  hearth  stones  with  their  ashes  into  the  cache- 
pits  at  the  end  of  the  season,  and  that  they  often  used  the  depres¬ 
sions  in  the  earth,  caused  by  partial^  filled  cache-pits,  as  hearths. 

The  following  discovery  described  by  Dr.  Metz  is  certainly  a 
hearth : 

Monday,  March  31,  1879.  Under  the  leaf  mould  I  discovered  a  circular 
layer  of  ashes  4  inches  deep  and  below  it  were  burnt  limestones  and  bowlders. 
Below  these  was  a  layer  of  mussel  shells  (unio)  3  inches  thick.  Below  the 
shells  a  large  round  bowlder  upon  which  rested  an  elliptical  flint  instrument, 
3  inches  long.  The  bowlder  rested  upon  a  layer  of  sand  8  inches  deep,  and  on 
the  clay  partially  covered  by  the  sand  and  at  a  total  depth  of  2\  feet  were  two 
large  prongs  of  elkhorn. 

R.  E.  Merwin  describes  as  follows  certain  of  the  hearths  explored 
by  him : 

Hearth  1 ,  Trench  A 

Depth  of  top  of  rocks  below  surface  of  ground,  13  in. 

Total  depth  of  depression,  25  in. 

Depth  of  depression  below  surface  of  hard-pan,  6  in. 

The  depression  or  pit  was  of  irregular  shape  being  5  ft.  2  in.  long,  and  3  ft. 
9  in.  at  its  widest  part.  Throughout  the  pit  charred  wood  was  found  in  great 
abundance.  Within  the  pit  and  resting  on  the  hard-pan  were  arranged  ir¬ 
regular  pieces  of  limestone  varying  in  size  from  1  inch  in  diameter  to  10  inches, 
and  also  a  number  of  pieces  of  sandstone.  These  stones  showed  action  of  fire 
as  did  the  floor  and  walls  of  the  pit.  No  charred  animal  bones  were  found  or 
any  artifacts.  One  potsherd  was  found  above  the  pile  in  the  loam  5  inches 
below  the  surface. 


NEAR  MADISONVILLE,  OHIO 


41 


Hearth  I,  Trench  B 

Total  depth  below  surface,  2  ft.  7  in. 

Depth  below  surface  of  hard-pan,  5  in. 

Leaf  mould,  3  in. 

Diameter,  23§  in. 

This  was  a  saucer-like  depression  in  the  hard-pan.  The  sides  were  not 
burnt.  Four  inches  above  hard-pan  was  a  layer  of  large  unburnt  rocks,  below 
this  a  stratum  of  black  earth  mixed  with  ashes.  In  this  were  found  the  frag¬ 
ments  of  the  skull  of  a  bear  and  a  few  fragmentary  animal  bones.  Two 
inches  below  surface  of  hard-pan  was  a  layer  of  burnt  clay  1  inch  thick,  and 
below  it  was  black  earth  with  a  great  amount  of  ashes.  All  of  the  following 
finds  in  this  stratum  were  burnt:  a  large  potsherd,  6  grains  of  corn,  frag¬ 
mentary  animal  bones,  and  a  burnt  clay  ball. 

Mr.  Swanton  distinguishes  between  hearths  and  fire  places.  The 
latter  he  defines  as  “  areas  on  the  surface  of  the  hard-pan  where  the 
soil  had  been  reddened  by  fire.” 

There  was  a  great  variation  in  the  size  and  shape  of  these  areas.  .  .  .  Usu¬ 
ally  such  fire  places  seemed  to  bear  no  definite  relation  to  ash-pits  or  burials, 
though  there  may  be  an  exception  in  the  case  of  skeleton  IV,  27,  which  lay 
over  a  stratum  of  charcoal  covering  a  layer  of  red  earth,  probably  a  fire  place. 
Ash-pit  IV,  10  was  surrounded  by  fire  place  23.  To  the  uniformity  and  ap¬ 
parent  absence  of  importance  of  these  fire  places  we  must  except  fire  places 
29,  36,  and  37,  Trench  IV.  Fire  place  29  from  its  singular  shape  and  the 
peculiarity  of  its  contents  and  surroundings  I  have  ventured  to  call  an  altar. 
It  bears  some  resemblance  to  the  altars  found  at  the  Turner  Group  of  mounds 
higher  up  the  Little  Miami  River.  This  altar  was  a  small  saucer-like  depres¬ 
sion  in  the  surface  of  the  hard-pan,  baked  red  by  fire  and  filled  with  very  fine 
white  ashes.  Its  depth  below  the  surface  was  2  ft.  10  in.  and  its  diameter 
1  ft.  9  in.  The  depth  of  the  hollow  forming  this  altar  was  7  inches.  The  head  of 
skeleton  IV,  30,  lay  beside  this  altar,  and  ash-pit  IV,  26,  was  a  short  distance  off. 
Fire  place  36  was  similar  to  the  others  except  that  it  was  connected  with  the 
altar  and  unlike  other  fire  places,  pieces  of  a  pot  or  of  pots  were  found  imbedded 
in  the  discolored  soil.  This  discolored  soil  was  about  2  inches  in  thickness. 
Fire  place  37  also  in  all  probability  had  something  to  do  with  the  altar,  but  it 
was  not  directly  connected  with  it. 

The  present  writer  feels  that  the  evidence  upon  which  Mr. 
Swanton  based  his  opinion  that  fire  place  36  was  an  “  altar  ”  is 
insufficient. 

B.  W.  Merwin  found  two  of  these  burnt  places  in  Trench  E.  It 
seems  probable  that  these  fire  places  and  hearths  mark  the  site 
of  habitations  or  camp-fires. 


* 


42 


INDIAN  VILLAGE  SITE  AND  CEMETERY 


Post-holes.  Mr.  Swanton  writes  in  his  report: 

Under  the  general  name  of  “  post-holes  ”  I  have  catalogued  many  little 
excavations  too  small  for  cache-pits,  and  of  rather  doubtful  significance. 
These  were  usually  one  to  two  feet  in  diameter,  by  from  two  to  four  feet  in 
depth,  running  one  or  two  feet  into  the  hard-pan.  Their  contents  were  very 
insignificant  —  a  bed  of  ashes,  some  charcoal,  a  few  bones,  a  little  charred 
wood,  a  few  limestone  pebbles,  and  a  celt  or  two  being  about  all  that  was  dis¬ 
covered.  The  pits  containing  charred  wood  may  really  have  been  post-holes. 
No  one  can  tell  about  the  others. 

Dr.  Metz  probably  did  not  distinguish  these  “  post-holes  ”  from 
cache-pits.  Mr.  Swanton  records  about  a  dozen  of  them,  R.  E. 
Merwin  30,  B.  W.  Merwin  25.  They  were  evidently  found  for 
the  most  part  in  the  northeastern  portion  of  the  cemetery,  and 
especially  in  Trench  F  and  Trench  I.  The  majority  of  them 
contained  nothing  but  mixed  earth  and  charred  wood.  Those  re¬ 
ported  by  It.  E.  Merwin  varied  from  6  inches  to  11  inches  in  diam¬ 
eter,  averaging  about  8  inches,  the  depths  being  from  2|  to  3  feet. 
They  are  therefore  smaller  than  those  reported  by  Mr.  Swanton. 
Those  excavated  by  B.  W.  Merwin  were  of  similar  dimensions 
but  with  a  slightly  larger  range  in  diameter  and  depth.  Some¬ 
times  there  were  a  few  bones,  potsherds,  stones,  and  ashes  in  them. 

It  seems  probable  that  many  of  these  “  post-holes  ”  of  small 
diameter,  were,  as  Mr.  Swanton  suggests,  actually  what  the  name 
implies.  Some  of  the  larger  ones  may  have  been  small  cache-pits, 
but  they  were  usually  unstratified. 

Kitchen- middens.  Dr.  Metz  discovered  two  kitchen-middens 
in  the  course  of  his  work  in  the  cemetery.  The  first  of  these  he 
describes  in  his  notes  as  follows: 

March  20  to  April  1,  18S0 

Work  in  the  kitchen-midden  was  continued  until  April  1,  and  having 
reached  the  head  of  the  ravine,  it  was  deemed  advisable  to  abandon  further 
excavations  at  this  point  for  the  present.  This  deposit  of  kitchen  refuse 
extended  34£  feet  across  the  head  of  a  ravine  on  the  west  side  of  the  plateau, 
averaging  in  depth  6  to  7  feet,  and  was  made  up  of  irregular  deposits  of  ashes, 
charcoal  and  sand,  animal  remains,  unio  shells,  and  sherds. 

This  midden  also  yielded  a  few  burials  and  cache-pits,  and  many 
artifacts.  On  April  2,  a  second  kitchen-midden  was  discovered  on 
the  eastern  edge  of  the  plateau.  This  is  evidently  the  one  subse¬ 
quently  explored  by  R.  E.  Merwin  in  1907. 


NEAR  MADIS0NY1LLE,  OHIO 


43 


Mr.  Swanton  excavated  a  kitchen-midden  in  his  portion  of  the 
cemetery  which  occupied  a  depression  running  east  and  west. 

The  width  of  this  midden  was  about  thirty  feet;  its  length,  as  far  as  traced 
about  seventy,  though  it  ran  a  considerable  distance  further  east.  In  the 
deepest  place  this  kitchen-midden  measured  about  four  feet,  shallowing  gradu¬ 
ally  on  each  side.  The  average  depth  may  have  been  about  three  feet.  The 
soil  composing  this  kitchen-midden  was  dark  and  rich  and  similar  to  the 
forest  mould,  except  that  layers  of  ashes  were  very  common,  often  extending 
to  the  very  bottom.  A  great  deal  of  charcoal  was  scattered  throughout  but 
the  proportion  of  animal  bones  was  comparatively  meager.  Flints  and  flint 
points  were  common  and  so  many  small  articles  of  interest  were  discovered 
that  it  was  found  advisable  to  pass  all  the  earth  through  screens. 

The  kitchen-midden  explored  by  R.  E.  Merwin  near  Trench  C 
had  been  formed  by  filling  up  a  small  ravine  with  refuse.  He 
states  that  it  was  about  40  feet  long,  8  to  12  feet  wide,  and  varied 
in  depth  from  3  feet  6  inches  to  5  feet.  The  following  is  a  list  of  the 
objects  found  in  this  refuse  heap: 

Human  mandible,  1 
Human  patella,  1 
Perforated  shells,  30 
Stone  celts,  3. 

Stone  celts  (fragmentary),  2 
Worked  stones,  3 
Sharpening  stones,  21 
Flint  points,  23 
Flint  knives,  3 
Flint  scrapers,  4 
Flint  rejects,  21 
Bone  cylinders,  12 
Bone  bead,  1 
Worked  antler  tips,  23 
Worked  antlers,  29 

Mr.  B.  W.  Merwin  also  explored  a  kitchen-midden  in  the  ravine, 
running  north  and  south.  This  midden  had  the  following  section: 

Leaf  mould,  10  in.  Ashes,  4  ft.  3  in. 

Black  dirt,  1  ft.  10  in.  Black  dirt  and  ashes,  5  ft.  1  in. 

Ashes  and  black  dirt,  2  ft.  4  in.  Black  dirt  and  clay,  7  ft.  7  in. 

Clay,  3  ft.  2  in. 

Most  of  the  specimens  in  this  midden  were  found  in  the  ashes 
at  depths  varying  from  3  feet  2  inches  to  4  feet  3  inches. 


Antler  blades,  9 

Fragments  of  bone  fish-hooks,  2 
Bone  awls,  12 

Bone  awls  (fragmentary),  12 
Notched  bone  awl,  1 
Fragmentary  bone  scrapers,  48 
Perforated  bone  (4  holes),  1 
Notched  bones,  2 
Notched  antler,  1 
Grooved  hammerstone,  1 
Stone  implements,  2 
Shell  object,  1 
Piece  cannel  coal,  1 
Reject  antler  points,  2 


44 


INDIAN  VILLAGE  SITE  AND  CEMETERY 


House  Circles.  Before  the  existence  of  the  cemetery  on  this 
site  was  knpwn,  Dr.  Metz  in  his  survey  of  the  monuments  of  the 
region  had  recorded  the  existence  of  a  number  of  circular  depres¬ 
sions  on  the  Stites  property  on  the  northeastern  portion  of  the 
plateau.  On  June  24,  25,  26,  four  of  these  circles  were  investigated 
by  him,  by  running  trenches  3  to  5  feet  wide  through  their  centers. 

In  one  of  these  was  found  a  bed  of  ashes  20  inches  below  the  surface,  con¬ 
taining  potsherds,  animal  remains,  and  charcoal.  Near  the  edges  of  the  de¬ 
pressions  were  found  an  occasional  implement  or  arrowpoint. 

When  Professor  Putnam  visited  the  site  in  May,  1882,  he  ex¬ 
cavated  four  more  of  these  circles  (plate  30).  The  following  are 
extracts  from  his  note-book: 

May  6,  1882.  Circle  No.  1 

Trench  started  north  and  south.  Outside  to  outside  of  circle  43  feet.  At 
southern  end  of  trench  numerous  animal  bones,  burnt  limestones,  unio  shells, 
and  potsherds  in  the  leaf  mould.  Also  a  worked  antler  tip  and  several  flint 
chips,  a  rude  hoe  (?),  and  on  the  clay  or  an  inch  or  two  below  its  surface  was 
a  rude  grooved  axe. 

In  the  center  of  the  circle  lying  on  the  clay  we  came  to  a  layer  of  stones. 
Took  the  stones  up  and  found  ashes  and  charcoal  and  burnt  clay  under  them. 
This  was  a  fire  place.  Leaf  mould  1$  feet  at  north  end,  2  feet  in  center  and  2| 
feet  at  south  end  of  trench.  At  the  north  end  of  the  ditch  were  many  small 
burnt  stones,  a  very  few  animal  bones,  and  a  few  unio  shells.  In  the  central 
portion  were  a  number  of  potsherds,  clam  shells,  two  broken  flints,  a  broken 
flat  stone  with  hole  (gorget).  The  central  ditch  was  run  to  the  east.  Finished 
the  trenches  but  found  nothing  else  of  importance. 

The  fire  place  in  the  center  was  on  the  clay  and  there  is  every  reason  to  be¬ 
lieve  that  the  floor  of  the  house  was  hard  clay.  Now  the  question  is  how  much 
of  the  leaf  mould  was  in  existence  at  the  time  the  house  was  occupied  ?  The 
two  feet  in  the  center  over  the  fire  stones  has  certainly  formed  since  the  house 
went  to  decay.  How  much  have  the  earth  worms  done  here  ?  In  digging  the 
trenches  very  few  worms  were  found,  probably  not  over  a  dozen  or  twenty  in 
the  whole  day’s  work  of  three  men. 

May  S.  Circle  No.  2  about  60  ft.  northwest  of  No.  1. 

Trench  runs  northeast  to  southwest.  In  the  center  under  6  inches  of  leaf 
mould  was  a  bed  of  ashes  4  inches  deep,  about  5  feet  in  diameter.  Ashes  were 
fresh  and  comparatively  recent.  Under  the  ashes  was  17  inches  of  leaf  mould. 
To  the  south  of  the  center  were  several  bricks,  a  few  inches  in  the  leaf  mould. 
It  was  evident  that  there  had  been  some  recent  white  man’s  work  on  the  site 
of  the  circle,  probably  a  sugar  boiling  camp.  A  few  animal  bones  and  a  few 
potsherds,  and  several  flint  chips  were  found.  On  clearing  out  under  the 
recent  ash-bed  we  came  to  about  2  inches  of  very  black  old  ashes  on  the 


NEAR  MADISONVILLE,  OHIO 


45 


surface  of  the  clay  17  inches  from  the  surface  of  the  leaf  mould.  In  this  bed 
of  ashes  were  a  few  flint  chips  and  fragments  of  pottery.  The  only  thing  found 
in  the  recent  upper  bed  was  a  fragment  of  pressed  brick  showing  its  recent 
origin. 

Circle  3  was  about  40  feet  south  of  1.  It  consisted  of  an  embank¬ 
ment  9  feet  in  width  and  had  a  diameter  of  43  feet  inside  the  em¬ 
bankment.  Number  4  consisted  of  an  embankment  12  feet  wide 
which  adjoined  that  of  3  on  the  southeastern  side.  The  diameter 
from  outside  to  outside  was  58  feet.  These  circles  yielded  finds 
similar  to  those  above  described. 

These  circles  certainly  are  the  remains  of  houses  or  huts.  As 
has  been  pointed  out  above  it  seems  probable  that  these  were  the 
habitations  of  the  later  dwellers  on  the  site,  since  the  successive 
villages  seem  to  have  moved  from  the  southwestern  portion  of 
the  plateau  in  a  northeasterly  direction,  probably  owing  to  the 
accumulation  of  debris  on  the  site  and  the  large  number  of  burials. 


ARTIFACTS  FROM  THE  SITE 


By  Charles  C.  Willoughby 

General  Distribution  of  Types.  In  studying  the  artifacts  from 
this  site,  it  should  be  remembered  that  most  of  them  are  of  types 
used  at  the  time  of,  or  immediately  preceding,  the  first  intercourse 
of  the  northeastern  Indians  with  Europeans.  Perhaps  the  most 
distinctive  stone  implements  are  the  mullers  or  pestles  having  a 
flat  expanded  base,  the  discoidal  stones,  and  the  chipped  adze 
blades.  Broadly  speaking,  these  three  types  are  characteristic  of 
an  area  enclosed  by  a  circle  about  five  hundred  miles  in  diameter, 
with  its  center  near  Louisville,  Kentucky,  and  taking  in  the  greater 
portion  of  Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois,  Kentucky  and  Tennessee.  It 
is  almost  wholly  within  the  Algonquian  and  Iroquoian  areas. 

The  distribution  of  certain  types  of  shell  objects  from  the  site 
is  probably  about  the  same.  On  the  other  hand,  most  of  the  ordi¬ 
nary  forms  of  stone  implements  and  shell  ornaments  have,  of 
course,  a  much  wider  range. 

So  far  as  the  distribution  of  the  rarer  types  of  antler  and  bone 
objects  is  concerned,  but  little  data  outside  of  Ohio  are  available 
for  comparison.  Probably  the  most  distinctive  and  least  widely 
ranging  group  of  artifacts  is  the  pottery.  The  group  seems  to  be 
confined  principally  to  southern  Ohio  and  certain  portions  of 
Indiana  and  Kentucky. 

Knives  and  the  Larger  Projectile  Points.  On  plate  5  are  illus¬ 
trated  most  of  the  forms  of  flint  knives  recovered  from  the  cache- 
pits  and  general  refuse.  It  is,  of  course,  possible  that  some  of  these 
may  be  projectile  points,  but  the  greater  number  were  probably 
knife  blades  which  were  hafted  in  short  wooden  handles  and  were 
employed  in  the  manifold  uses  to  which  the  implement  is  adapted. 
In  looking  over  the  large  number  of  tools  made  of  antler,  and  the 
chips  and  refuse  pieces  of  this  material  found  everywhere  upon 
this  site,  abundant  evidence  is  shown  of  the  efficiency  of  the  flint 
knife  as  a  cutting  implement. 


47 


48 


INDIAN  VILLAGE  SITE  AND  CEMETERY 


Perhaps  the  most  interesting  example  in  the  collection  is  shown 
at  k.  This  is  made  of  white  flint,  and  the  broad  blade,  comprising 
the  upper  one-fourth  of  the  implement,  is  thin  and  beautifully 
chipped  to  a  sharp  cutting  edge.  Its  lower  three-fourths  forms  the 
handle,  which  was  undoubtedly  wrapped  with  buckskin  or  similar 
material  as  a  protection  to  the  hand. 

The  knife  or  scraper  figured  in  n,  is  of  the  uncommon  beveled 
type.  It  is  a  little  less  than  half  an  inch  thick,  with  an  abrupt 
chisel-like  bevel  at  the  left  of  the  side  shown  in  the  drawing,  and 
it  also  has  the  usual  corresponding  bevel  upon  the  other  side  of 
the  opposite  face. 

Nearly  all  knives  of  this  type  have  the  bevel  upon  the  left  side 
when  held  with  the  base  toward  the  observer.  The  reason  for  this 
seems  obvious,  when  we  remember  that  most  Indians  are  right- 
handed,  and  in  using  the  modern  steel  curved  knife  draw  the  blade 
toward  them  in  cutting.  Experiments  show  that  this  form  of 
flint  blade  with  its  wide-angled  serrated  edge  is  especially  useful 
in  working  wood. 

Very  few  of  the  larger  blades,  such  as  are  illustrated  in  1,  m,  o, 
were  found. 

It  is  possible  that  m  may  have  been  a  spear  point,  as  the  shank, 
which  is  broken  off,  seems  to  have  been  somewhat  narrow  for  the 
attachment  of  a  suitable  knife  handle. 

The  more  ordinary  forms  of  knife  blades,  such  as  are  illustrated 
in  g,  h,  i,  j,  with  their  broad  strong  shanks  for  the  attachment  of 
hafts,  were  fairly  common,  as  were  also  the  thin  finely  chipped 
leaf-shaped  blades  (a)  which  were  probably  employed  in  more 
delicate  work,  such  as  flaying  and  cutting  up  animals,  cutting  out 
buckskin  garments,  etc.,  for  which  they  are  especially  adapted. 

In  the  American  Naturalist  for  January,  1902,  the  present  writer 
figured  and  described  ten  prehistoric  halted  flint  knives  from  the 
cliff-houses  and  burial  caves  of  the  Southwest.  The  following  forms 
shown  on  plate  5  were  represented:  triangular  (d),  leaf-shaped  (a), 
stemmed  (h,  j),  and  notched  (i).  These  were  secured  to  the  handles 
in  most  cases  with  a  cement  made  of  gum.  In  one  instance  the 
cement  was  reinforced  with  twine  wrapping,  and  in  another  ex¬ 
ample  the  notched  blade  was  fastened  with  sinew.  In  two  instances 
the  blade  was  set  at  a  considerable  angle  to  the  handle.  One  of 
the  specimens  resembled  a  pocket  knife  somewhat  more  than  half 


Peabody  Museum  Papers 


Vol.  VIII,  Plate  5 


Madisonville  Site 

Knives,  projectile  points  and  scrapers.  (About  $.) 


NEAR  MADISONVILLE,  OHIO 


49 


open.  In  the  Mexican  collection  of  the  Museum  are  eight  pre¬ 
historic  hafted  blades  of  the  leaf-shaped  and  triangular  types, 
about  two  and  a  half  to  seven  inches  long,  with  handles  ranging 
about  five  to  seven  inches,  which  illustrate  the  manner  of  hafting 
the  larger  chipped  implements  of  these  forms.  The  blades  were 
secured  to  the  handles  with  gum  only. 

Very  few  of  the  sharp  edged  flaked  knives,  shown  in  b,  were 
found  during  the  explorations.  The  making  of  these  required  ex¬ 
ceptional  skill,  and  they  were  used  necessarily  for  the  most  delicate 
work,  such  as  cutting  hair  and  thin  dressed  skin  and  trimming 
feathers,  for  the  edge  is  very  easily  dulled. 

A  considerable  number  of  the  ordinary  flint  rejects  and  chips 
were  recovered  such  as  are  nearly  always  found  upon  Indian  vil¬ 
lage  sites,  but  there  is  no  indication  that  chipped  implements  were 
manufactured  here  in  unusual  quantities. 

Arrowmaker’s  Tools.  On  plate  6,  a-g,  are  shown  several  flint¬ 
working  punches  of  antler.  A  considerable  number  of  these  were 
obtained,  the  majority  being  about  one  and  a  half  inches  long  and 
three-eighths  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  A  few,  however,  were  larger. 
These  were  used  undoubtedly  with  a  hammer  of  stone  or  hard 
wood,  in  flaking  suitable  pieces  of  flint  from  large  masses,  and  for 
the  roughing  out  of  blades  and  projectile  points.  In  a  number  of 
specimens,  one  end  is  battered  or  split  from  repeated  blows  of  the 
hammer.  Unlike  the  ordinary  antler  flakers  used  in  finishing  blades 
by  pressure,  the  ends  of  these  punches  are  nearly  always  symmetri¬ 
cally  rounded. 

A  piece  c  f  antler  from  which  punches  have  been  cut  is  shown  in  h. 
The  antler  was  worked  into  a  rod  several  inches  long,  with  an  un- 
worked  portion  at  one  end  for  a  handle.  The  rod  was  then  cut  into 
sections.  Many  of  these  refuse  pieces  were  found  in  the  debris. 

In  the  accounts  of  the  process  of  flint  chipping  by  the  Indians 
there  are  few  references  to  the  punch  and  hammer.  It  is  apparent, 
however,  that  their  use  was  wide-spread  as  a  preliminary  process 
to  the  final  pressure  flaking  by  the  ordinary  antler  tools  with 
special  working  ends.  In  the  collections  of  the  Museum  there  are 
examples  of  these  punches  from  the  village  sites  in  other  sections 
of  Ohio,  from  the  Iroquoian  sites  in  New  York,  one  good  specimen 
from  a  Maine  shell-heap,  and  a  number  from  various  places  in  the 
Mississippi  Valley. 


50 


INDIAN  VILLAGE  SITE  AND  CEMETERY 


Catlin,  in  describing  the  process  of  arrowmaking  among  the 
Apache,  says  that  the  flint  to  be  worked  was  placed  in  the  left 
hand  where  it  was  firmly  held  by  two  or  more  fingers.  The  punch 
was  grasped  between  the  thumb  and  two  fingers  of  the  right  hand, 
and  a  cooperator  sitting  in  front  with  a  mallet  of  very  hard  wood 
struck  the  punch  upon  its  upper  end.  Both  the  holder  and  striker 
sang,  and  the  strokes  of  the  mallet  were  given  in  time  with  the 
music.1  This  apparently  refers  to  the  blocking  out  of  suitable 
pieces  for  finishing  by  pressure  flaking. 

In  his  illuminating  paper  on  Yahi  archery  2  Dr.  Pope  gives  an 
interesting  description  of  Ishi’s  method  of  making  arrowpoints. 

A  boulder  of  obsidian  was  shattered  by  throwing  a  rock  upon  it.  The 
chunks  thus  obtained  were  broken  into  smaller  size  by  holding  a  short  segment 
of  deer  horn  or  piece  of  bone  against  a  projecting  surface,  and  smartly  striking 
it  a  glancing  blow  with  a  stone.  The  resulting  flakes  of  obsidian  best  suited 
for  arrow  heads  were  roughly  three  inches  long,  an  inch  and  a  half  wide,  and 
half  an  inch  thick. 

These  were  chipped  into  arrowpoints  with  the  aid  of  the  ordinary 
pressure  flaker  of  antler. 

The  longer  pressure  flakers  were  much  less  common  on  this  site 
than  the  punches.  Three  of  these,  made  of  antler,  are  shown  in 
plate  6,  i,  j,  k.  Their  lower  ends  are  specially  formed  for  the  kind 
of  work  required.  They  were  used  in  the  more  delicate  flaking 
necessary  in  finishing  the  finer  blades  and  points.  These  long 
flakers  may  have  been  used  without  a  haft,  but  some  of  the  shorter 
ones  of  the  same  type  from  existing  tribes  are  fastened  to  handles 
of  varying  lengths,  some  of  which  are  long  enough  to  allow  the 
free  end  to  be  held  between  the  arm  and  body  of  the  worker. 

The  relatively  large  number  of  the  short  antler  punches  found  in 
comparison  with  the  long  pressure  flakers  (the  ratio  being  roughly 
about  one  hundred  to  one)  would  seem  to  indicate  that  the  smaller 
punches  may  have  been  used  in  the  final  flaking  of  at  least  a  con¬ 
siderable  portion  of  the  coarser  chipped  implements. 

Figures  1,  m,  plate  6,  represent  examples  of  a  certain  group  of 
stones,  showing  abrasions  and  other  marks  of  use,  which  probably 
served  in  preparing  sinew  and  perhaps  as  hammers  for  antler 

1  George  Catlin,  Last  Rambles,  pp.  184-185. 

2  Saxton  T.  Pope,  Yahi  Archery,  Univ.  of  Calif.  Publications,  Amer.  Arch,  and  Eth.,  vol. 
xiii,  pp.  116-117,  and  plate  27. 


Peabody  Museum  Papees 


You.  VIII,  Plate  6 


Madisonville  Site 

Arrowmaker’s  tools;  a-g,  Flint-working  punches  of  antler;  h,  worked  antler  from  which  a 
punch  has  been  cut;  i-k,  Antler  tools  for  pressure  flaking;  l,  m,  Arrowmaker’s  stones;  re,  o, 
Arrowshaft  wrenches;  p~r,  Arrowshaft  finisheis.  (About  i.) 


Peabody  Museum  Papers 


Vol.  VIII,  Plate  7 


Madisonville  Site 

a,  Flint  points  for  drills;  b,  c,  Flint  arrowpoints;  e,  Unfinished  arrow-points  of  deer  antler; 
/,  i,  Finished  arrowpoints  of  antler;  d,  Tips  of  antler  from  which  arrowpoints  are  made; 
j,  Spear  point  of  antler  with  incised  decoration;  k.  Design  incised  upon  j\  g,  Flint  arrow- 
point  embedded  in  human  vertebra;  h,  Antler  arrowpoint  embedded  in  human  vertebra 
from  a  grave  at  Turpin’s  Farm,  near  Madisonville;  l,  Antler  point  on  very  old  arrow  from 
the  southeastern  Indians.  (About  i.) 


NEAR  MADISONYILLE,  OHIO 


51 


punches  in  arrowmaking.  Stones  of  like  character  were  found 
with  three  arrowmaking  outfits  in  Iroquoian  graves  during  the 
Peabody  Museum  explorations  in  western  New  York. 

On  the  same  plate,  n,  o,  are  shown  two  arrowshaft  straighteners 
of  antler.  These  were  used  in  preparing  the  twigs  out  of  which  the 
shafts  were  made.  The  twig  was  heated  and  passed  through  the 
hole  in  the  implement  which  was  used  as  a  wrench  or  lever  to 
straighten  its  bends  and  irregularities.  Arrowshaft  straighteners 
of  wood,  horn,  and  ivory,  from  the  Eskimo,  Athapascan,  Shosho- 
nean  and  other  tribes  are  in  the  collections  of  the  Museum.  In 
this  connection  it  is  interesting  to  note  the  resemblance  of  these 
Madison ville  implements  to  the  so-called  “  batons  de  commande- 
ment  ”  of  the  French  caves,  some  of  which  were  probably  used  to 
straighten  the  shafts  of  arrows  or  darts.  The  end  of  the  small  tine 
of  the  straightener,  shown  in  n,  is  rounded  and  smooth  and  has 
evidently  been  used  as  a  flaker. 

Specimens  of  the  typical  sandstone  arrowshaft  smoothers  or 
finishers  are  illustrated  in  p,  q,  r.  Most  of  the  examples  found  were 
fragments.  In  use,  the  shaft  was  drawn  through  the  grooves  of  a 
pair  of  these  stones  held  faces  together  in  the  hand. 

Arrowpoints.  Plate  7,  f,  shows  four  specimens  illustrating  the 
range  in  size  and  form  of  the  antler  arrowpoints,  which  are  rela¬ 
tively  abundant  on  this  site.  Those  having  a  barb  are  compara¬ 
tively  rare.  A  number  of  unfinished  points  were  recovered  which 
illustrate  clearly  the  process  of  making.  In  d,  are  figured  two 
antler  tips  which  have  been  encircled  by  a  groove  and  then  broken 
off.  These  were  evidently  cast  aside  for  the  reason  that  it  would 
involve  more  labor  to  cut  away  the  broken  portion  below  the 
groove,  than  to  groove  another  tine  and  break  it  squarely  off  as  in 
the  third  example.  After  detachment  the  tip  was  trimmed  down 
and  shaped  as  illustrated  in  e,  probably  with  a  beaver  tooth  chisel 
or  flint  knife,  then  drilled  and  finished  by  grinding  or  scraping. 

These  points  have  a  wide  distribution  and  were  used  over  a  con¬ 
siderable  portion  of  the  central  and  eastern  United  States.  Beau¬ 
tiful  examples  are  in  the  collections  of  the  Museum  from  the  Ohio 
burial  mounds,  and  also  on  very  old  historic  arrows  from  the 
southeastern  Indians.  One  of  the  latter  is  figured  in  1. 

An  antler  point  of  this  type  embedded  in  the  vertebra  of  a 
human  skeleton  is  shown  in  h.  This  was  taken  from  a  grave  at 


52 


INDIAN  VILLAGE  SITE  AND  CEMETERY 


Turpin’s  Farm  not  far  from  Madisonville.  The  Indian  had  been 
shot  from  behind. 

The  point  figured  in  i,  seems  to  be  too  large  for  an  arrow  and  it 
may  have  been  used  on  a  small  spear.  Only  a  very  few  as  large  as 
this  were  found.  The  specimen  illustrated  in  j,  however,  is  un¬ 
doubtedly  a  spear  point.  The  design  shown  in  k,  consisting  of 
crosses,  zigzag  lines,  and  what  seems  to  be  an  inverted  spear  with 
ornamented  shaft  and  large  head,  is  cut  upon  it  in  incised  lines. 
This  is  from  a  cache-pit  in  Trench  H. 

So  far  as  can  be  judged  from  the  specimens  collected,  the  triangu¬ 
lar  flint  points  of  the  type  illustrated  in  c,  seem  to  have  been  the 
favorite  among  these  Indians,  although  the  antler  points  above 
described  were  nearly  as  common.  They  are  made  mostly  from  a 
yellowish  gray  flint  of  various  shades  and  are  quite  delicately 
chipped.  This  form  was  also  the  favorite  among  the  Iroquoian 
tribes.  A  vertebra  of  a  skeleton  from  Trench  D  with  one  of  these 
points  embedded  in  the  bone  is  shown  in  g. 

Very  few  notched  or  stemmed  arrowpoints  were  recovered. 
Some  of  these  are  illustrated  in  b.  One  cannot  be  certain,  how¬ 
ever,  that  all  were  used  as  points  for  arrows,  although  most  of 
them  probably  were,  as  they  seem  too  small  for  knives,  and  the 
width  of  the  bases  between  the  notches  is  not  sufficient  for  the 
attachment  of  a  practical  knife  handle. 

Flint  Drills.  Several  flint  drills  are  represented  in  a,  of  this  plate. 
A  considerable  number  of  these  were  obtained  from  the  cache-pits 
and  general  debris. 

A  few  drills  of  like  form,  hafted  in  wooden  handles,  have  been 
taken  from  cliff-houses  and  burial  caves  in  the  Southwest,  which 
indicate  in  general  the  probable  method  of  hafting  the  Madison¬ 
ville  specimens.  The  most  common  way  seems  to  have  been  to 
insert  the  broad  end  of  the  drill  into  a  notch  in  one  end  of  a  handle 
six  or  eight  inches  in  length,  where  it  was  secured  with  pitch  and 
twine  wrappings.  This  handle  or  shaft  was  twirled  between  the 
hands,  or  with  the  aid  of  some  mechanical  contrivance  like  the 
bow,  which  was  in  use  for  this  purpose  in  the  Southwest  previous 
to  the  arrival  of  the  Whites.  Another  method  is  shown  by  a  speci¬ 
men  from  Colorado.  A  short  stick  was  split  through  the  center, 
and  the  broad  face  of  the  drill  was  placed  between  the  two  pieces 
at  about  equal  distance  from  the  opposite  ends,  with  the  drill 


Peabody  Museum  Papers 


Vol.  VIII,  Plate  8 


Madisontille  Site 

a,  Beaming  tool  made  from  the  femur  of  the  puma;  b,  c,  Beaming  took  made  from  the 
cannon  bones  of  the  deer;  d.  Beaming  tool  made  from  the  spinal  process  of  the  buffalo; 
e-j,  Flint  scrapers.  (About  -J.) 


NEAR  MADISONVILLE,  OHIO 


53 


point  projecting  at  right  angles  to  the  length  of  the  stick.  The 
two  halves  of  the  handle  were  then  bound  securely  together.  In 
use  the  handle  must  have  been  grasped  with  the  drill  projecting 
between  the  two  middle  fingers. 

Skin-dressing  Tools.  On  plate  8  are  illustrated  four  bone  beam- 
ers  for  removing  the  hair  from  skins  which  were  first  made  wet 
and  folded,  or  left  in  a  pile  until  the  hair  became  loosened  by  fer¬ 
mentation.  The  skin  was  then  thrown  hair-side  uppermost  over 
a  rounded  piece  of  wood  or  section  of  tree  trunk.  The  beamer 
was  seized  with  one  end  in  each  hand,  and  applied  to  that  portion 
of  the  skin  lying  over  the  beam.  A  light  scraping  with  the  sharp 
edges  of  the  tool  rendered  the  skin  clean  and  free  from  hair.  By  far 
the  greater  number  of  beamers  were  made  from  the  cannon  bones 
of  the  deer.  Two  of  these  are  shown  in  b,  c.  Fragments  of  several 
hundred  of  these  were  obtained.  They  were  usually  broken  near 
the  middle  as  this  was  the  thinnest  and  most  fragile  part  of  the 
tool.  Only  a  comparatively  small  number  of  unbroken  ones  were 
recovered.  Among  these  are  a  few  which  are  unfinished  and  clearly 
show  the  process  of  making.  One  method  was  to  widen  and  deepen 
the  natural  longitudinal  groove  on  the  broad  face  of  the  bone, 
probably  with  the  rounded  edge  of  a  flint  scraper,  until  the  required 
sharp  edges  upon  either  side  were  produced.  Another  was  to  cut 
a  longitudinal  slit  through  the  wall  and  scrape  away  the  bone 
upon  either  side  until  the  proper  edges  were  formed. 

As  the  edges  became  dulled  by  use  they  were  again  sharpened 
by  scraping,  and  the  process  was  repeated  until,  in  many  instances, 
the  middle  of  the  tool  became  so  weakened  that  it  apparently 
broke  in  use  and  was  thrown  aside. 

Another  favorite  bone  from  which  beamers  were  made  was  the 
long  spinal  process  of  the  buffalo  (d).  These  were  less  common 
than  those  made  from  deer  bones.  Fragments  of  sixty  or  seventy 
were  recovered,  together  with  a  few  perfect  ones.  Their  length 
ranged  from  about  eleven  to  sixteen  inches.  Other  bones  of  the 
buffalo  were  rarely  found  in  the  refuse. 

It  is  probable  that  during  the  occupation  of  this  site,  buffalo  were 
not  uncommon  in  the  section  of  the  Little  Miami  Valley  which  the 
village  overlooked.  If  they  were  hunted  to  any  great  extent,  how¬ 
ever,  the  Indians  evidently  brought  the  meat  to  the  village  upon 
the  headland,  leaving  most  of  the  bones,  excepting  such  as  were 


54 


INDIAN  VILLAGE  SITE  AND  CEMETERY 


selected  for  the  making  of  implements,  in  the  valley.  Zeisberger,1 
who  wrote  in  1780,  says  the  buffalo  at  that  time  were  found  near 
the  mouth  of  the  Muskingum,  and  were  reported  in  considerable 
numbers  along  the  Scioto. 

Judging  from  the  large  number  of  bones  of  the  deer  in  the  refuse 
of  the  site,  it  seems  to  have  been  the  favorite  food  animal  of  these 
Indians. 

A  very  few  beamers  were  obtained  wrought  from  the  larger  leg 
bones  of  the  deer  and  elk.  The  example  shown  in  a,  is  made  from 
a  femur  of  the  puma. 

The  more  essential  tools  employed  in  skin-dressing  are  the  beam¬ 
ers  above  described,  and  the  scraper  or  “grainer,”  which  is  used 
for  removing  from  the  inner  side  of  the  skin  the  adherent  fat  and 
skin  muscles,  and  also  for  “  graining  ”  or  softening  the  skin  as  it 
dries.  Various  kinds  of  these  instruments  were  in  use  by  Indians 
in  general.  They  were  often  made  of  the  tibia  of  the  deer,  cut  to  a 
chisel-shaped  edge  which  was  notched  or  serrated  to  render  it  more 
efficient.  This  seems  to  be  a  much  more  practical  tool  than  the 
adze-like  scrapers  with  smooth  edges  used  for  this  purpose  by 
some  of  the  tribes  of  the  Plains  region.  There  is  no  evidence,  how¬ 
ever,  that  the  people  of  this  site  used  a  bone  “  grainer  ”  of  this 
form.  Another  and  equally  effective  tool  of  chipped  flint  seems  to 
have  been  preferred. 

One  of  the  most  effective  skin-scrapers  employed  in  recent  times 
by  the  Eskimo,  but  now  abandoned  among  tribes  who  have  lost 
the  art  of  stone  chipping,  is  the  form  shown  on  plate  8,  e-j.  Among 
the  Eskimo  they  were  usually  hafted  in  short  wooden  handles 
elaborately  wrought  to  fit  the  hand  perfectly.  They  were  also 
sometimes  hafted  in  ordinary  straight  handles. 

Flint  blades  of  this  form  with  their  scraping  edges  often  beauti¬ 
fully  serrated  were  recovered  in  large  numbers  from  the  general 
refuse  of  this  site.  They  were  probably  hafted  by  inserting  their 
narrower  ends  into  straight  wooden  handles,  and  were  doubtless 
used  largely  in  skin-dressing,  but  were  probably  also  employed  in 
working  bone  and  wood.  It  is  not  improbable  that  certain  types 
of  antler  blades  (plate  14,  e,  f)  may  also  have  been  used  as  skin- 
scrapers. 


1  David  Zeisberger,  History  of  the  Northern  American  Indians ,  p.  59. 


Peabody  Museum  Papers 


Vol.  VIII,  Plate  9 


Madisonville  Site 

a-c,  Chipped  flint  adze  blades  ground  near  the  cutting  edge;  d,  e,  Adze  blades;  g,  Hematite 
blade;  h ,  Small  slate  blade  or  chisel;  i-k,  Grooveless  axes.  (About  $.)  The  adze  blades 
were  probably  hafted  as  shown  in/,  the  grooveless  axes  as  in  l. 


NEAR  MADISONVILLE,  OHIO 


55 


Chipped  scrapers  of  erratic  shapes,  such  as  occur  in  most  collec¬ 
tions,  examples  of  which  are  shown  on  plate  5,  c,  were  very  rare. 
Only  about  a  dozen  were  found  during  the  explorations  by  the 
Museum. 

Grooveless  Stone  Axes.  Perhaps  the  most  highly  developed 
stone  implements  from  this  site  are  the  grooveless  axes  made  of 
very  compact  varieties  of  stone,  the  majority  being  carefully 
formed  and  polished.  Most  of  these  were  obtained  from  cache- 
pits.  Three  are  illustrated  in  plate  9,  i,  j,  k,  and  the  common 
method  of  hafting  is  shown  in  1.  Sometimes  the  shorter  blades  of 
this  type  were  set  into  a  hole  which  did  not  pass  through  the 
handle;  but  in  the  majority  of  cases  the  haft  was  perforated  and 
the  upper  end  of  the  blade  projected,  as  is  conclusively  shown  by 
five  prehistoric  examples  in  their  original  handles  which  have  been 
taken  from  the  beds  of  streams  in  the  Iroquoian  and  Algonquian 
areas.  In  the  sixth  hafted  specimen  known  to  the  writer,  the  blade 
is  set  into  a  hole  which  does  not  perforate  the  handle. 

The  larger  grooveless  axes  were  probably  used  principally  as  im¬ 
plements  for  cutting  wood,  both  with  and  without  the  aid  of  fire, 
while  the  smaller  specimens  may  have  been  employed  both  as 
implements  and  weapons.  Most  references  to  stone  axes  among 
the  Indians  by  the  earlier  writers  probably  relate  to  the  grooveless 
type.  In  New  England  a  few  were  in  use  in  the  first  half  of  the 
Seventeenth  Century.  Johnson  in  1654  refers  evidently  to  this  form 
as  follows:  “  They  had  a  small  number  of  Mawhawks  [tomahawks] 
Hammers,  which  are  made  of  stone  having  a  long  pike  on  one  side 
and  a  hole  in  the  handle  which  they  tye  about  their  wrists.”  1 

Gookin  refers  to  “  tomahawks  made  of  wood  like  a  poleaxe  with 
a  sharpened  stone  fastened  therein.”  2  And  Williams  says  that 
trees  were  felled  with  a  “  stone  set  in  a  wooden  haft.”  3 

As  the  grooveless  axe  was  evidently  highly  prized  by  the  occu¬ 
pants  of  the  Madisonville  site,  it  undoubtedly  continued  in  use  till 
replaced  by  iron  blades  similar  to  those  illustrated  on  plate  18,  o-r. 
Very  few  small  stone  blades  of  this  class  were  recovered  during  the 
exploration.  One  of  hematite,  typical  of  the  miniature  axes  of 
this  material  from  Ohio  and  the  neighboring  region,  is  figured  (g). 
This  was-found  in  a  cache-pit. 

1  Edward  Johnson,  A  History  of  New  England,  p.  114. 

*  Daniel  Gookin,  Historical  Collections,  Mass.  Hist.  Coll.  1st  S.  Repr.  1859,  vol.  i,  p.  152. 

*  Roger  Williams,  Key  into  the  Language  of  America,  R.  I.  Hist.  Coll.,  vol.  i,  p.  130. 


56 


INDIAN  VILLAGE  SITE  AND  CEMETERY 


So  far  as  the  explorations  of  the  Museum  show,  the  grooved  axe 
was  unknown  to  the  occupants  of  this  site. 

Stone  Adze  Blades.  Very  few  stone  adze  blades  were  recovered. 
They  seem  to  have  held  a  subordinate  place  among  the  implements 
of  this  people.  The  antler  blades  so  common  here  may  have  served 
their  needs  as  well.  They  certainly  were  more  quickly  fashioned 
and  there  was  an  abundance  of  material  from  which  to  make  them. 

A  few  chipped  stone  adzes  polished  near  the  cutting  edge  were 
found,  nearly  all  from  cache-pits.  These  belong  to  a  type  much 
more  common  in  the  region  of  the  lower  Ohio  and  Mississippi 
Rivers,  than  in  the  north.  Three  are  illustrated  on  plate  9,  a — c. 
They  are  made  of  a  cream-colored  chert  or  flint.  The  one  shown  in 
a,  was  found  with  a  skeleton. 

Two  adze  blades  of  polished  stone  of  the  ordinary  form  are 
figured  in  d  and  e.  The  larger  of  the  two  lay  near  the  right  femur 
of  a  skeleton  in  Trench  D.  The  probable  method  of  hafting  these 
implements  is  shown  in  f.  A  small  and  finely  finished  blade  of 
compact  slate  carefully  polished  is  illustrated  in  h.  This  was 
probably  used  with  the  aid  of  fire  in  making  the  finer  perishable 
objects  of  wood  which  were  undoubtedly  common  among  the 
people,  and  which  the  fragment  of  wooden  food  bowl,  figured  in  e, 
plate  21,  will  serve  to  illustrate. 

Anvils,  Hammer-stones,  and  Grinding  Stones.  Thomas  Hariot, 
writing  of  the  Virginia  Indians  in  1587,  tells  us  that  each  house¬ 
hold  had  stones  for  cracking  nuts  and  for  grinding  shell  and  other 
materials.1  This  statement  would  doubtless  be  equally  true  if  ap¬ 
plied  at  that  time  to  almost  any  ,tribe  inhabiting  the  section  east 
of  the  Mississippi. 

Anvils,  hammer-stones,  and  stones  for  grinding  were  very  abun¬ 
dant  on  the  site  under  consideration,  and  must  have  been  common 
objects  in  all  of  the  houses.  The  anvils,  or  pitted  stones,  as  they 
are  more  commonly  called,  were  of  the  type  usually  abundant  on 
old  village  sites.  Two  of  them  are  illustrated  on  plate  10,  d,  e. 
These  stones  vary  considerably,  some  of  them  being  much  larger 
than  the  ones  illustrated.  Their  form  and  size  were,  of  course, 
determined  by  the  water-worn  stones  from  which  they  are  made, 
for  they  are  usually  unmodified  save  for  the  depression  pecked 

1  Thomas  Hariot,  A  Brief  and  True  Report  of  the  New  Found  Land  of  Virginia,  Holbein 
edition,  p.  25. 


Peabody  Museum  Papers 


Vol.  VIII,  Plate  10 


Madisonville  Site 

a,6,  c,  Grooved  club  heads;  d,  e,  Anvils  or  pitted  stones;/,  g,  Hammer-stones;  k,  i,  Mortars 
or  stones  for  grinding;  j,  Grinding  stone  and  muller;  k,  Muller.  (About  §.) 


NEAR  MADISONVILLE,  OHIO 


57 


upon  one  or  both  sides.  It  is  generally  conceded  that  these  house¬ 
hold  objects  are  primarily  anvils  on  which  acorns,  hickory  and 
other  nuts  were  cracked.  The  bones  of  food  animals  were  probably 
crushed  on  the  larger  anvils.  They  also  undoubtedly  served  for 
other  domestic  purposes.  Some  of  the  smaller  ones  are  battered 
along  their  edges,  the  result  of  being  used  as  hand  hammers. 

A  considerable  number  of  the  round  hammer-stones  were  found, 
of  the  type  illustrated  in  f,  g,  such  as  occur  upon  many  of  the  vil¬ 
lage  sites  east  of  the  Mississippi.  These  are  usually  made  of  chert, 
quartzite  or  other  hard  varieties,  and  are  thought  to  have  been 
used  among  other  purposes  for  pecking  or  roughing  out  various 
stone  implements. 

A  very  large  number  of  fragments  of  sandstone  and  limestone 
were  found,  with  one  or  more  abraded  surfaces,  which  had  been 
used  for  rasping  or  grinding  in  the  making  of  various  objects  of 
shell,  bone,  antler,  wood  or  the  softer  varieties  of  stone.  In  some 
instances  these  abrading  stones  were  of  special  forms,  like  the 
grooved  fragments  of  limestone  shown  on  plate  21,  f-h,  which 
were  evidently  designed  for  finishing  cylindrical  objects  of  a  nature 
similar  to  the  shafts  of  arrows  or  arrowpoint  flakers  of  antler. 
Slabs  of  limestone  of  various  sizes  were  apparently  used  for  grinding 
corn,  acorns,  paint  and  similar  materials,  one  or  both  faces  being 
worn  smooth,  or  a  depression  formed  by  continued  rubbing.  Two 
of  these  are  figured  on  plate  10,  i  and  j.  A  shallow  stone  mortar 
probably  for  grinding  paint  or  medicine  is  represented  in  h. 

The  pestles  or  mullers  were  mostly  of  the  form  shown  in  j,  which 
is  the  type  generally  used  by  Indians  of  the.  Madisonville  culture 
over  a  large  portion  of  Ohio.  Another  and  rarer  form  is  illustrated 
in  k. 

Club  heads,  of  the  kind  figured  in  a-c,  plate  10,  were  not  un¬ 
common.  They  usually  consist  of  an  oblong  pebble  unmodified 
with  the  exception  of  the  encircling  groove,  although  occasionally 
one  is  wrought  over  nearly  the  entire  surface,  and  in  the  case  of  c, 
the  form  is  wholly  artificial.  These,  as  a  rule,  show  no  signs  of 
having  been  used  as  mauls;  they  were  probably  all  club  heads,  the 
weapon  being  similar  to  the  well-known  warclub  of  the  Plains 
tribes. 

Several  well-finished  objects  of  unknown  use  with  carefully 
ground  faces,  and  made  of  compact  altered  slate  were  obtained 


58 


INDIAN  VILLAGE  SITE  AND  CEMETERY 


during  the  exploration.  Three  of  these  are  figured  on  plate  21, 
i-k.  They  do  not  seem  to  have  been  employed  as  grinding  stones 
or  for  preparing  sinew.  With  our  present  knowledge,  no  definite 
use  can  be  assigned  to  them.  Five  or  six  small  discoidal  stones  of 
the  usual  type  were  recovered;  two  are  illustrated  in  1  and  m 
of  this  plate.  The  upper  one  is  perforated,  and  accompanied 
a  skeleton.  The  one  shown  in  m,  was  obtained  from  a  cache- 
pit.  They  are  probably  gaming  stones,  and  like  the  shell  gorgets 
with  the  characteristic  eye  markings,  seem  to  connect  at  least  a 
part  of  the  material  culture  of  this  people  with  that  of  the  tribes 
more  to  the  south. 

The  so-called  winged  ceremonial  stones,  which  form  so  attractive 
a  group  from  Ohio,  are  represented  in  the  collection  from  this  site 
by  a  single  fragment.  This  probably  belongs  to  an  older  culture 
and  doubtless  bears  no  relation  to  the  people  under  consideration. 

Fishing  Implements.  On  plate  11,  a-f,  are  illustrated  a  number 
of  fish  hooks  made  from  fragments  of  the  leg  bones  of  deer  or  other 
large  animals.  These  are  usually  grooved  near  the  end  of  the 
shank  for  the  attachment  of  the  line.  The  one  shown  at  a,  however, 
is  perforated  at  this  point.  Hooks  in  the  process  of  making  are 
shown  in  g,  h,  i.  The  fragment  of  bone  was  perforated  near  one 
end,  probably  with  a  flint  drill,  and  grooved  or  cut  through  with 
flint  knives.  The  piece  was  removed  between  the  grooves  which 
intersect  at  the  perforation,  and  the  hook  finished  by  cutting  and 
grinding.  The  variation  in  the  size  of  the  hooks  perhaps  indicates 
the  wide  range  in  the  species  of  fish  sought.  One  broken  hook  was 
obtained  cut  from  a  unio  shell. 

The  harpoon  points  shown  in  j-n  of  this  plate  are  made  of  antler. 
Their  bases  are  irregular  and  do  not  seem  to  have  been  so  carefully 
fitted  to  the  socket  in  the  shaft  as  is  usual  among  northern  tribes. 
A  peculiar  feature  of  the  point,  m,  is  the  double  barb  and  double 
perforation  for  the  line.  The  harpoons,  of  which  these  are  a  part, 
were  probably  used  principally  in  taking  large  fish.  Most  of  these 
points  are  from  the  general  refuse  of  the  village  site,  but  one  speci¬ 
men  (1)  was  found  with  a  skeleton. 

Awls  and  Needles.  Some  of  the  more  typical  awls  and  needles 
are  illustrated  on  plate  12.  Mat  needles  made  from  deer  ribs,  such 
as  were  probably  used  principally  for  sewing  together  flag  leaves 
in  making  mats  for  house  coverings,  are  shown  in  a-c.  Compara- 


Peabody  Museum  Papers 


Vol.  VIII,  Plate  11 


a-f.  Bone  fish-hooks;  ff-i,  Unfinished  fish-hooks  showing  process  of  making;  j-ti,  Harpoon 
points  of  antler.  (About  J.) 


NEAR  MADISONVILLE,  OHIO 


59 


tively  few  were  found  as  they  are  exceedingly  fragile  and  perish¬ 
able.  These  needles  seem  to  indicate  that  mat  coverings  were  used 
upon  the  houses  of  this  village.  The  mats  were  undoubtedly  of 
the  type  so  widely  distributed  in  Canada  and  the  northern  por¬ 
tion  of  the  United  States,  which  are  made  of  a  double  layer  of  flag 
leaves,  so  fastened  together  that  the  junction  of  the  edges  of  the 
leaves  in  each  layer  is  covered  by  the  central  portion  of  each  leaf 
of  the  opposing  layer.  When  properly  adjusted  these  mats  make 
a  practically  waterproof  covering. 

A  number  of  fragments  of  needles  made  of  antler  and  having  a 
circular  cross-section  were  found,  most  of  them  showing  more  or 
less  curvature.  Two  are  illustrated  at  the  left  in  e.  In  the  third 
example  figured,  the  upper  portion  has  been  much  reduced  in  size, 
and  notches  were  cut  near  the  tip  to  which  the  thread  was  probably 
tied. 

Several  well-polished  thin  perforators  of  bone  with  sharp  points 
were  recovered,  two  of  which  are  shown  in  d. 

A  series  of  antler  pins  is  figured  in  f.  They  are  well  made  and 
vary  from  one  and  three-fourths  inches  to  eight  inches  in  length. 
While  they  may  have  been  used  as  bodkins,  it  seems  probable  that 
they  were  designed  for  another  purpose. 

The  other  implements  shown  upon  the  plate  are  mostly  bodkins 
or  perforators  such  as  abound  in  the  refuse  of  this  village  site. 
They  are  made  from  various  bones  of  birds  and  quadrupeds,  the 
tarsal  bones  of  the  turkey  (g,  h),  and  the  ulnae  of  the  deer  (k), 
being  favorites.  They  were  used  in  basket  making  and  for  many 
other  purposes. 

A  number  of  the  type  figured  in  h,  made  from  the  upper  portion 
of  the  tarsal  bone  of  the  turkey,  are  notched  along  the  upper  part, 
as  shown  at  the  left  in  the  figure.  This  is  probably  to  prevent  the 
fiber  or  thong  wrapping,  which  sometimes  serves  as  a  protection 
to  the  hand  in  similar  perforators,  from  slipping. 

The  specimen  shown  in  i,  is  a  half  of  a  broken  beamer  made  of  the 
cannon  bone  of  the  deer.  The  end  has  been  ground  to  a  thin  edge. 
The  implement  would  be  an  effective  one  for  use  in  the  construction 
of  coarse  splint  basketry.  Only  a  few  of  these  were  obtained. 

Antler  Blades.  Many  blades  were  found,  of  different  forms  and 
sizes,  made  of  elk  antler,  but  it  is  difficult  to  determine  their  various 
functions  with  any  degree  of  certainty.  There  were  several  of  the 


60 


INDIAN  VILLAGE  SITE  AND  CEMETERY 


type  illustrated  on  plate  13,  a,  b,  each  provided  with  a  deep  notch 
on  the  inner  side  near  the  upper  end.  In  a,  the  upper  portion  has 
been  broken  off  through  the  original  notch,  and  repaired  by  cutting 
a  second  notch  below,  more  shallow  than  the  first  and  showing 
little  wear.  In  the  type  specimen,  b,  considerable  wear  is  present 
at  the  sides  and  back,  near  to,  as  well  as  within,  the  notch.  The 
distribution  of  the  worn  surfaces  seems  to  indicate  hafting  in  the 
manner  shown  in  d.  All  blades  of  this  form  have  the  base  of  an 
antler  branch  at  their  back,  the  lower  portion  of  which  in  some 
specimens  is  considerably  worn.  It  is  probable  that  this  abrasion 
was  produced  by  a  withe  or  stout  thong  arranged  somewhat  as  in 
the  drawing. 

Another  blade  of  similar  shape,  but  probably  hafted  in  a  some¬ 
what  different  manner,  is  illustrated  in  c.  Upon  either  side,  near 
its  upper  end,  are  shallow  notches  much  worn.  These  indicate 
that  the  hafting  must  have  been  similar  to  that  indicated  in  e. 

The  cutting  edges  of  these  instruments  are  sometimes  well  pre¬ 
served,  but  they  nearly  all  show  wear.  Some  have  the  peculiar 
striae  noticeable  on  certain  stone  blades  generally  supposed  to  have 
been  used  as  hoes.  This  wear  occasionally  extends  upward  for  a 
considerable  distance  above  the  edge,  and  it  is  very  likely  that  the}’’ 
may  have  been  used  as  mattocks.  Others  may  have  been  employed 
in  working  charred  wood  for  which  their  edges  were  well  adapted. 

On  plate  14  are  illustrated  the  more  common  forms.  The  type 
represented  i^  d,  e,  f,  was  the  most  abundant.  They  vary  in 
length  from  about  four  to  nine  inches,  and  many  of  them  were 
probably  hafted  after  the  manner  of  adzes.  Others,  especially 
those  with  irregular  edges,  may  have  been  used  as  hoes  or  digging 
implements  in  the  planting  and  the  care  of  gardens.  One  cannot 
readily  understand  how  implements  with  edges  like  those  in  d  and 
c,  could  be  used  advantageously  for  the  ordinary  purposes  of  an 
adze  or  scraper,  while  their  employment  as  digging  implements, 
might  tend  to  produce  this  irregularity  which  would  in  no  way  im¬ 
pair  their  value. 

Blades  with  straight  or  rounded  edges,  as  in  e  and  f,  may  have 
served  as  scrapers  in  skin-dressing  or  similar  work. 

The  specimen  illustrated  in  d,  is  especially  interesting  as  it 
shows  the  marks  of  the  binding  material,  probably  bark  or  split 
roots,  which  secured  the  blade  to  its  handle.  The  tool  had  evidently 


Peabody  Museum  Papers 


Vol.  VIII,  Plate  12 


Madisonville  Site 

a-c,  Bone  needles  for  sewing  mats;  e.  Bone  needles;  d,  g-l,  Bodkins;  /,  Antler  pins.  (About  J.) 


NEAR  MADISONVILLE,  OHIO 


61 


been  in  or  near  a  fire  which  consumed  the  bindings,  leaving  the 
blade  blackened  and  charred  where  the  burning  wrappings  came 
in  contact  with  it. 

A  number  of  specimens  are  perforated  as  indicated  in  a,  b,  c, 
but  the  holes  show  little  wear.  The  perforations  probably  served 
in  some  way  for  securing  the  lashing  which  bound  the  implement 
to  its  handle.  The  specimen,  c,  has  notches  near  its  upper  end  to 
assist  in  hafting.  The  example  illustrated  in  b,  has  less  conspicuous 
notches  near  its  upper  extremity  and  also  a  small  notch  upon  either 
side  below  the  perforation.  The  original  length  of  a  few  of  the 
blades  has  apparently  been  much  reduced  by  repeated  sharpening. 

Beaver  Tooth  Chisels.  The  Indians  who  inhabited  the  Madison- 
ville  site,  as  well  as  nearly  all  the  tribes  living  in  the  beaver  country, 
used  the  incisors  of  this  animal  for  chisels  or  cutting  implements. 

Chisels  made  from  the  upper  and  lower  incisors  are  illustrated 
in  plate  15,  e.  The  lower  incisors  are  much  more  commonly  used 
for  this  purpose  as  the  curvature  is  less.  The  hard  outer  enamel 
of  these  teeth  can  be  ground  to  a  keen  edge,  and  the  tool  is  ad¬ 
mirably  adapted  for  making  the  smaller  and  more  delicate  objects 
of  wood,  bone  and  antler.  These  blades  were  hafted  in  short 
handles,  usually  of  wood  or  antler.  Antler  hafts,  some  of  which 
were  probably  used  with  beaver  tooth  blades,  are  found  on  certain 
Ohio  village  sites,  but  none  which  could  be  definitely  attributed 
to  this  use  were  obtained  at  Madisonville.  One  handle  of  antler 
is  shown  in  f,  plate  15.  This,  however,  more  probably  served  in 
hafting  a  small  flint  blade. 

All  of  the  beaver  tooth  cutting  implements  obtained  during  the 
Museum  exploration  were  of  the  chisel  type.  None  of  the  side 
cutting  knives,  such  as  occur  also  with  this  form  in  New  England 
and  certain  other  sections,  were  found. 

Historical  references  to  the  use  of  these  implements  are  rare. 
Captain  John  Smith1  writes  of  the  Virginia  Indian: 

to  make  the  noch  of  his  arrow,  he  hath  the  tooth  of  a  Beaver,  set  in  a  sticke, 
wherewith  he  grateth  it  by  degrees. 

He  also  says  that  bone  fish  hooks  were  worked  out  in  the  same 
way  —  “  grated  as  they  noch  their  arrows.” 

In  the  collections  of  the  Peabody  Museum  are  two  old  beaver 
tooth  chisels  in  wooden  hafts,  which  were  obtained  years  ago  from 

1  Voyages  and  Discoveries,  Arber  edition,  vol.  i,  pp.  364-365. 


62 


INDIAN  VILLAGE  SITE  AND  CEMETERY 


the  Eskimo  of  Bristol  Bay.  The  sharpened  tooth  is  inserted  into 
a  curved  perforation  running  from  one  end  through  to  the  side 
of  the  handle.  As  the  tooth  becomes  shortened  by  regrinding,  it  is 
adjusted  by  being  pushed  forward  from  the  side  of  the  haft. 

The  remarkable  wood  cutting  habits  of  the  beaver  undoubtedly 
exerted  a  marked  influence  in  the  choice  of  the  incisors  of  this 
animal  for  blades  of  cutting  implements,  and  it  is  in  keeping  with 
what  we  know  of  the  workings  of  the  unsophisticated  Indian 
mind  if  supernatural  powers  were  attributed  to  these  tools. 

Musical  Instruments.  About  twenty  of  the  flute-like  objects  of 
the  type  shown  in  plate  15,  d,  made  from  the  long  bones  of  birds, 
were  found  during  the  explorations  by  the  Museum.  They  are 
mostly  small,  and  judging  from  the  unbroken  specimens  recovered 
the  number  of  finger  holes  range  from  five  to  nine,  the  usual  num¬ 
ber  being  five  or  six.  The  holes  were  commonly  about  one-half 
inch  apart,  but  in  one  specimen  the  centers  of  the  perforations  are 
placed  about  one-fourth  inch  from  each  other,  too  near,  it  would 
seem,  for  its  successful  manipulation  by  the  fingers  of  an  adult. 

These  instruments  are,  of  course,  distinct  from  the  bone  whistles 
of  the  modern  Plains  tribes  which  have  no  finger  holes,  and  they 
differ  materially  from  the  small  bone  flutes  of  the  Pueblo  region 
which  have  a  large  orifice  near  one  end  like  the  modern  flute. 

Similar  instruments  are  still  found  among  the  Thompson  Indians 
of  British  Columbia,  where  they  are  used  by  pubescent  girls  in 
their  ceremonies.  The  girl’s  mouth  must  not  touch  the  surface  of 
the  water,  so  she  drinks  through  a  bone  tube.  These  are  generally 
plain,  but  some  of  them  are  furnished  with  holes  along  one  side  so 
as  to  be  used  also  as  a  whistle,  from  which  a  number  of  notes  are 
produced  in  imitation  of  various  birds.  Sometimes  birds  are 
called  with  them.  There  is  in  the  Museum,  an  instrument  of  this 
type  collected  by  Mr.  James  Teit  which  is  almost  a  duplicate  of 
some  of  the  Madisonville  specimens. 

A  considerable  number  of  fragments  of  ribs  of  deer  and  elk  were 
found  with  shallow  transverse  grooves,  about  one-fourth  to  one- 
half  an  inch  apart.  Two  of  these  are  shown  in  b  and  c,  platel5, 
and  an  unbroken  specimen  is  illustrated  in  a.  In  addition  to  the 
transverse  grooves  this  example  is  notched  along  the  convex  edge, 
these  notches  apparently  having  no  relation  to  the  grooves.  A 
few  small  ribs  were  also  found  without  the  transverse  grooves, 


Peabody  Museum  Papers 


Vol.  VIII,  Plate  13 


« 


Madisonville  Site 


Blades  made  of  elk  antler,  about  §  natural  size,  probably  hafted  as  shown  in  d,  e. 


/ 


I 


* 


< 


* 


Peabody  Museum  Papers 


Vol.  VIII,  Plate  14 


Madisonville  Site 

Blades  made  from  elk  antler.  (About  J.) 


NEAR  MADISONVILLE,  OHIO 


63 


but  having  notches  close  together  along  the  convex  edge.  These 
may  have  been  tally  sticks  or  possibly  tools  for  smoothing  pottery, 
and  probably  bear  no  relation  to  the  above  specimens.  A  number 
of  fragments  of  the  former  type  show  considerable  wear  along  the 
center  of  the  grooved  side,  and  in  some  instances  the  grooves  at 
this  point  have  been  worn  partially  or  wholly  away,  as  illustrated 
in  b,  by  the  continued  rubbing  of  the  scapula  or  other  accessory 
used  in  producing  the  sound. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  these  specimens  are  analogous  to 
the  well-known  notched  sticks  used  for  marking  time  in  the  dances 
of  the  Pueblo  Indians.  When  in  use  these  sticks  usually  rest  upon 
a  resonator  made  of  a  hollow  gourd  and  are  scraped  along  the 
notches  with  the  scapula  of  the  deer,  thus  producing  a  sharp 
rattling  sound.  Similar  instruments  made  of  the  notched  cannon 
bones  of  the  deer  and  used  with  scapula  scrapers  are  also  found 
among  the  Huichol  Indians  of  Mexico;1  and  notched  human  femora 
and  tibiae,  which  undoubtedly  served  a  like  purpose,  were  taken 
from  graves  by  Dr.  Lumholtz  at  Zacapa,  Mexico.2 

In  the  West  Indies  notched  gourds  were  used  for  this  purpose, 
and  notched  sticks,  with  a  plain  stick  for  a  scraper,  are  reported 
from  the  Utes  and  from  the  Iroquois  of  New  York  State.3 

Personal  Ornaments  of  Shell.  A  considerable  number  of  per¬ 
sonal  ornaments  made  of  shell  were  obtained  from  graves.  The 
species  most  commonly  used  was  probably  Fulgur  perversa  from 
the  coast  of  Florida,  although  a  number  of  specimens  made  ap¬ 
parently  from  Fulgur  carica  were  found. 

The  common  unio  shells  of  the  inland  streams,  used  so  exten¬ 
sively  for  spoons  and  implements,  do  not  seem  to  have  been  very 
highly  valued  for  the  production  of  ornaments,  although  several 
interesting  specimens  made  of  this  pearly  material  were  recov¬ 
ered.  On  plate  16,  a,  c,  are  shown  two  gorgets  cut  from  these 
fresh  water  shells,  one  of  which  has  some  unintelligible  marking 
in  incised  lines.  A  few  pendants,  were  also  obtained;  two  of  these 
are  represented  in  j.  A  number  of  crudely  fashioned  discs  (s)  ap¬ 
proximately  one-half  to  one  inch  in  diameter,  which  may  have 
been  used  as  dice,  were  recovered.  One  might  be  disposed  to  con¬ 
sider  these  unfinished  discoidal  beads,  were  it  not  for  the  fact  that 

1  Cail  Lumholtz,  Unknown  Mexico,  vol.  ii,  p.  155. 

2  Ibid..,  p.  429. 

3  Frances  Morris,  Catalogue  of  the  Crosby  Brown  Collection  of  Musical  Instruments,  vol.  ii, 

p.  184. 


64 


INDIAN  VILLAGE  SITE  AND  CEMETERY 


only  a  very  few  finished  beads  of  this  type  were  found  during  the 
explorations.  A  large  one,  from  a  grave,  is  shown  in  t. 

The  other  objects  illustrated  upon  this  plate  are  made  from 
fulgur  shells,  some  of  which  were  undoubtedly  obtained  by  traffic 
with  more  southern  tribes.  The  gorget,  b,  cut  from  the  wall  of  a 
large  fulgur,  was  found  near  the  lower  jaw  of  a  skeleton.  The 
mask-like  gorgets,  d-h,  with  one  exception,  accompanied  skele¬ 
tons;  g  was  found  near  the  lower  jaw  of  an  adult;  and  d  and  e  are 
from  graves  of  children.  The  latter  is  apparently  cut  from  one  of 
the  large  circular  gorgets  having  elaborate  designs,  which  are 
not  uncommon  in  Tennessee  and  Kentucky.  That  portion  of  the 
original  design  which  remains  upon  the  reverse  of  the  ornament  is 
shown  in  the  drawing.  These  specimens,  all  of  which  represent 
the  conventionalized  human  face,  recall  at  once  the  larger  gorgets 
of  the  same  general  type  from  the  graves  and  mounds  of  Tennessee 
and  Virginia,  illustrated  and  described  by  Holmes  in  his  Art  in 
Shell.  That  the  same  deity  or  personage  is  represented  by  the 
specimens  from  Madisonville  is  evident  from  the  design  surround¬ 
ing  the  eye-like  perforations  in  g,  which  apparently  embodies  a 
like  symbolism  to  that  appearing  upon  the  specimens  figured  by 
Holmes. 

One  of  a  pair  of  mushroom-shaped  ornaments,  probably  ear 
plugs,  is  figured  in  i.  They  were  found  in  a  grave  by  Mr.  Swanton 
in  1897.  These  were  cut  from  large  fulgur  shells,  and  are  very 
carefully  made,  each  being  a  close  duplicate  of  its  companion.  It 
is  probable  that  they  were  obtained  by  trade  from  the  more  south¬ 
ern  Indians,  as  similar  specimens  have  been  taken  from  the  mounds 
of  Arkansas.  They  are  also  reported  from  Georgia.  The  Arkansas 
specimens,  however,  are  smaller  and  relatively  thicker  and  do  not 
have  the  perforation  at  the  lower  end. 

The  specimen  illustrated  in  k,  resembles  the  upper  portion  of 
the  ornament  above  described.  In  place  of  the  long  projection 
with  perforated  end,  however,  there  is  a  short  and  much  thinner 
perforated  projection  standing  out  at  an  angle  from  near  the  edge 
of  the  disc.  This  specimen  was  found  near  the  bones  of  the  left 
hand  of  a  skeleton.  A  similar  but  much  smaller  ornament,  taken 
from  a  cache-pit,  is  shown  in  the  drawing  below. 

In  m,  n,  of  the  above  plate,  are  figured  two  of  the  five  pendants 
made  of  small  fulgur  shells.  These  were  found  with  skeletons. 


Peabody  Musetjm  Papers 


Vol.  VIII,  Plate  15 


Madisonville  Site 

cl—c,  Musical  instruments  made  of  deer  ribs;  d,  Flute-like  instruments;  e,  Beaver  tooth 
chisels;/*  Antlei  handle;  g,  Implement  of  bone;  h,  i,  Scrapers  of  unio  shell;  j,  k ,  Combined 
spoons  and  cutting  implements.  (About  |.) 


NEAR  MADISONVILLE,  OHIO 


65 


The  shells  are  unworked,  save  for  a  groove  or  perforation  near  the 
smaller  end  for  attaching  the  cord.  Three  of  these  are  made  from 
the  shells  of  Fulgur  perversa ,  the  others  from  Fulgur  carcia. 

Only  two  small  “pins”  wrought  from  the  columellae  of  fulgur 
shells  were  obtained  during  the  explorations  by  the  Museum.  One 
is  represented  in  r.  Both  were  found  with  skeletons.  Although 
now  somewhat  disintegrated,  they  originally  bore  a  general  resem¬ 
blance  to  the  well-known  shell  pins  from  the  graves  of  the  Tennes¬ 
see  region,  but  the  heads  are  much  flatter. 

Considering  the  number  of  burials,  very  few  shell  beads  were 
recovered.  Nearly  all  were  made  from  the  columellae  of  fulgur 
shells.  As  a  rule,  only  a  few  small  beads  of  the  type  shown  in  p, 
occurred  with  a  skeleton.  These  were  usually  found  at  the  wrist 
or  neck. 

The  large  massive  beads,  q,  made  from  the  columellae  of  Fulgur 
perversa,  occurred  singly  or  in  groups  of  two  or  three.  Only  one 
necklace  worthy  of  the  name  was  obtained  during  the  explora¬ 
tions.  This  was  found  with  a  skeleton  by  Mr.  Swanton  and  con¬ 
sisted  of  fifty-five  beads  of  nearly  uniform  size,  made  from  the 
columellae  of  Fulgur  carica,  a  species  common  as  far  north  as 
Cape  Cod.  Seven  of  these  are  illustrated  in  o.  With  this  skeleton 
were  also  found  several  copper  beads  and  pendants,  the  copper 
ornamented  belt  and  the  iron  bead  illustrated  on  plate  18,  g  and 
s,  and  also  two  very  large  shell  beads. 

There  were  a  few  pieces  of  bone  or  shell  without  perforations 
which  may  have  been  used  for  inlaying  in  wood,  an  art  in  which 
some  of  the  Algonquian  tribes  were  proficient.  One  of  these 
pieces  cut  from  unio  shell  is  illustrated  in  1. 

A  very  few  of  the  small  marginella  shells,  with  a  portion  of  the 
shoulder  ground  away  to  make  a  perforation  for  the  passage  of 
sinew  thread,  were  taken  from  graves.  These  were  probably  used 
in  forming  designs  upon  cloth  or  buckskin,  to  which  they  were 
sewed.  Probably  the  finest  example  of  this  work  extant  is  the 
“  Powhatan  ”  mantle  in  the  Ashmolean  Museum.  This  is  figured 
on  plate  15  of  the  tenth  volume  of  the  Reports  of  the  Bureau  of 
American  Ethnology. 

Implements  and  Utensils  of  Shell.  Unio  shells  were  found  in 
large  numbers  in  the  cache-pits  and  general  refuse  of  the  site.  The 
unworked  valves  were  often  used  as  spoons  and  ladles. 


66 


INDIAN  VILLAGE  SITE  AND  CEMETERY 


Many  of  the  pottery  vessels  contained  mush  or  other  food  when 
deposited  in  the  grave.  They  were  frequently  accompanied  by 
one  or  two  valves  of  this  shell,  placed  within  the  vessel  to  serve 
as  spoons. 

In  most  of  the  village  sites  in  southern  Ohio  which  belong  to  the 
Madison ville  culture,  a  few  spoons  cut  from  the  valves  of  this 
shell  are  found,  having  a  well-wrought-  handle  upon  one  side.  Such 
spoons  are  common  in  the  graves  of  Tennessee  and  Kentucky. 
They  are  very  rare  indeed  at  this  site,  only  two  broken  examples 
being  in  the  Museum  collections,  one  of  which  is  illustrated  on  plate 
15,  k.  In  both  of  these  examples,  the  handle  is  furnished  with  a 
serrated  edge  admirably  adapted  for  the  cutting  of  meat  and  other 
solid  food,  which  generally  makes  up  a  portion  of  the  typical 
Indian  stew.  The  spoon  illustrated  has  a  perforation  to  receive 
the  suspending  cord.  A  third  well-made  spoon  from  this  site  is 
preserved  in  the  cabinet  of  the  Literary  and  Scientific  Society  of 
Madisonville  and  is  figured  in  Holmes’s  Art  in  Shell  in  the  Report 
of  the  Bureau  of  Ethnology  for  1880-1881.  This  has  the  serrated 
cutting  edge  upon  one  side,  and  a  short  rounded  handle  which  is 
also  perforated  for  suspension. 

An  interesting  specimen,  probably  a  combined  spoon  and  food 
cutter,  is  shown  in  plate  15,  j.  The  shell  is  unmodified  except  near 
the  edge,  which  is  coarsely  serrated  —  probably  also  for  the  pur¬ 
pose  of  rendering  it  more  effective  in  cutting.  Such  specimens  are 
rare  at  Madisonville,  but  are  found  more  commonly  on  other  Ohio 
sites  of  this  culture. 

Several  hundred  implements  of  the  type  illustrated  on  plate  15, 
h,  i,  were  taken  from  the  cache-pits  and  general  refuse.  They  con¬ 
sist  of  a  single  valve  of  unio  shell  with  a  perforation  about  half 
an  inch  in  diameter  near  the  center.  The  posterior  point  of  the 
valve,  in  some  instances,  shows  little  wear,  but  in  the  majority  of 
cases  is  worn  or  broken,  probably  in  cutting  or  hacking.  In  some 
of  the  better  preserved  specimens  this  portion  shows  careful  grind¬ 
ing  to  a  well-finished  blunt  scraping  edge,  and  these  were  apparently 
not  used  for  cutting  or  hacking  but  for  scraping.  They  may  have 
been  employed  in  skin-dressing.  Practically  all  of  these  imple¬ 
ments  have  the  opposite  end  near  the  hinge  blunted  by  breaking 
away  the  edge  of  the  shell  at  this  point.  This  was  probably  done 
to  facilitate  hafting.  The  great  majority  of  the  specimens  show 


Peabody  Museum  Papers 


Vol.  VIII,  Plate  16 


Madisonville  Site 
Personal  ornaments  of  shell.  (About  f.) 


NEAR  MADISONVILLE,  OHIO 


67 


no  wear  near  the  central  perforation.  When  signs  of  wear  appear 
it  is  usually  on  the  convex  side  of  the  shell  and  towards  the  hinge. 

It  is  an  interesting  fact  that  some  of  the  antler  blades  of  the 
types  illustrated  on  plate  14  have  a  bluntly  ground  scraping  edge 
similar  to  that  of  the  better  preserved  shell  implements,  and  it  is 
very  probable  the  perforation  in  both  the  antler  and  shell  blades 
served  a  like  purpose,  which  was  undoubtedly  to  assist  in  securing 
the  blade  to  the  haft. 

Professor  Holmes  has  discussed  the  probable  manner  of  hafting 
these  unio  blades  in  his  Art  in  Shell  above  referred  to. 

Combs  and  Personal  Ornaments  of  Bone  and  Antler.  On  plate 
17,  a,  b,  are  shown  a  pair  of  armlets  made  from  deer  ribs.  They 
were  found  one  upon  either  arm  of  the  skeleton  figured  at  the 
right  in  c,  plate  4.  One  is  neatly  ornamented  with  incised  lines 
and  dots;  the  other  is  without  ornamentation.  A  third  specimen, 
illustrated  in  c,  is  from  a  cache-pit.  Fragments  of  several  others 
were  found,  most  of  them  showing  incised  markings  of  a  nature 
similar  to  the  above.  These  armlets  are  very  neatly  made,  and 
each  end  is  perforated  for  receiving  the  thong  or  cord  which  bound 
them  together  and  held  them  in  place.  DuPratz  tells  us  that  the 
young  Louisiana  Indian  men  wore  bracelets  made  of  deer  ribs 
softened  in  boiling  water,  then  bent  into  the  required  shape,  and 
finely  polished  so  that  they  resembled  ivory.  These  ornaments 
must  have  been  more  common  than  appears  from  the  scant  evi¬ 
dence  furnished  by  archaeological  investigations.  The  use  of  boil¬ 
ing  water  to  soften  bone  and  antler  for  the  purpose  of  rendering 
them  more  easily  worked  with  primitive  tools,  appears  to  have 
been  common  among  Indians  in  general.  The  pair  of  neatly  made 
objects  of  antler,  illustrated  in  d,  were  found  near  the  jaw  of  a 
skeleton.  They  appear  to  have  been  personal  ornaments  of  soma 
kind,  perhaps  ear  plugs.  They  are  not  perforated,  the  ends  being 
carefully  finished  by  grinding.  The  central  cellular  portion  of 
the  antler  at  these  points  is  now  somewhat  disintegrated,  especi¬ 
ally  in  the  broken  one  shown  in  the  upper  drawing.  A  few  similar 
specimens  were  obtained  from  the  general  refuse  of  the  site. 

Several  pendants,  made  from  deformed  tips  of  deer  antler,  which 
had  been  shaped  into  crudely-made  effigies  of  the  heads  of  birds  or 
quadrupeds,  were  recovered.  Three  of  these  are  shown  at  e,  plate 
17,  the  lower  specimen  being  found  with  a  skeleton.  The  upper 


68 


INDIAN  VILLAGE  SITE  AND  CEMETERY 


one  of  the  three  illustrated  shows  a  natural  resemblance  to  the 
head  of  a  bird.  This  portion  of  the  pendant  is  unworked.  Several 
canine  teeth  of  the  bear,  wolf  and  dog,  perforated  for  suspension, 
were  secured.  Two  of  these  are  illustrated  in  j.  A  few  perforated 
elk  teeth  were  found,  but  these  were  not  abundant,  and  do  not 
seem  to  have  been  in  general  use. 

Beads  of  various  sizes,  consisting  of  cylinders  cut  from  the  large 
bones  of  various  birds,  were  found  in  graves  and  in  the  general 
refuse.  A  number  of  these  are  illustrated  in  f,  g.  Most  of  them 
were  without  ornamentation,  but  a  few  were  decorated  with  de¬ 
signs  in  incised  lines.  The  largest  figured  in  group  g,  is  one  of 
ten  found  with  a  skeleton.  They  extended  in  a  row  “  from  the 
mouth  to  the  arms  and  down  them.”  Seven  of  the  beads  bore  the 
design  shown  in  the  illustration.  This  design  appears  also  upon  a 
number  of  other  objects  from  the  site,  as  will  be  seen  by  referring 
to  plates  16,  19,  20.  It  is  evidently  in  part  a  lightning  symbol, 
and  is  found  most  commonly  surrounding  the  eyes  of  the  human 
face  in  a  certain  class  of  shell  gorgets,  one  of  which,  a  small  one 
from  this  burial  place,  is  illustrated  in  g,  plate  16.  Large  shell 
gorgets  bearing  this  general  design  occur  most  frequently  in  Ten¬ 
nessee  and  Virginia.1  The  same  figure  occurs  surrounding  the  eyes 
of  birds,  serpents  and  human  beings  in  numerous  drawings  and 
sculptures  from  various  sections  of  the  Mississippi  Valley. 

A  fragment  of  the  bone  base  of  a  holder  for  an  eagle  feather  is 
illustrated  on  plate  17,  h.  The  broken  lines  indicate  its  original 
form,  which  may  be  duplicated  by  recent  examples  in  almost  any 
large  ethnological  collection  from  the  Indians  of  the  Interior  Basin. 

One  of  the  cylinders  which  holds  the  feather  and  fits  over  the 
large  hole  in  the  narrow  end  of  the  base  of  these  ornaments,  is 
figured  in  i.  There  is  a  hole  upon  either  side  near  the  lower  end 
for  the  thong,  which  passes  also  through  the  perforations  upon 
either  side  of  the  large  hole  in  the  base  to  which  it  is  tied.  This 
thong  also  serves  to  fasten  the  ornament  to  the  lock  of  hair  on  the 
crown  of  the  warrior. 

The  base,  supporting  an  upright  bone  cylinder  and  feather,  and 
worn  nearly  in  a  horizontal  position,  with  the  broad  end  projecting 
backward,  is  placed  within  an  ornament  of  upright  deer  hair  dyed 

1  See  W.  H.  Holmes,  Art  in  Shell,  Rept.  Bureau  of  American  Ethnology,  vol.  ii,  plates 
67-69. 


Peabody  Museum  Papers 


Vol.  VIII,  Plate  17 


Madisonville  Site 

a-c,  Antler  arm-bands;  d,  Cylinders  of  antler,  perhaps  parts  of  ear-ornaments;  e,  Pendants 
in  form  of  bird  heads  made  from  diseased  tips  of  deer  antler;  f,  g,  Bone  beads;  h,  i,  Bone 
base  and  cylinder  for  supporting  eagle  feather  in  head-dress;  j,  Canine  teeth  pendants; 
k-o,  Antler  combs.  (About  \.) 


NEAR  MADISONVILLE,  OHIO 


69 


red  and  fringed  with  the  black  “'beard  hair  ”  of  the  turkey  or  long 
stiff  hair  of  the  porcupine.  Taken  altogether  it  forms  a  very  hand¬ 
some  and  striking  head  ornament,  and  was  worn  by  warriors  of 
various  tribes  over  a  considerable  area. 

The  fragment  of  the  base  was  found  in  a  cache-pit.  Only  two 
or  three  of  the  cylinders  were  recovered  during  explorations  by 
the  Museum. 

Five  antler  combs  are  shown  on  plate  17,  k-o.  These  are  all 
from  cache-pits,  with  the  exception  of  k,  which  lay  near  one  of  the 
skeletons  illustrated  in  c,  plate  4.  Upon  the  upper  portion  of  this 
comb  is  engraved  a  rattlesnake.  Each  of  the  combs  is  perforated 
near  its  upper  end  for  the  suspending  cord.  In  two  of  the  specimens, 
k  and  n,  horizontal  striae  are  noticeable  upon  the  teeth,  which  are 
evidently  caused  by  long  continued  use  of  the  implement,  for  dress¬ 
ing  the  hair  or  for  a  similar  purpose.  Combs  of  like  form,  but 
with  more  pointed  teeth,  are  often  used  by  the  Eskimo  for  combing 
and  renovating  the  hair  of  their  skin  garments. 

Personal  Ornaments  of  Copper.  A  considerable  number  of 
metal  objects  were  found  with  skeletons,  and  in  the  cache-pits  and 
general  refuse.  Most  of  these  were  in  the  form  of  cylindrical  cop¬ 
per  beads  of  various  sizes,  made  by  rolling  small  pieces  of  sheet 
metal  into  tubular  form.  The  majority  of  these  are  probably 
wrought  from  native  copper,  but  some  are  undoubtedly  made  of 
European  copper.  It  would  be  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  to  de¬ 
termine  even  approximately  the  number  belonging  to  each  group 
without  a  chemical  analysis  of  the  metal.  Most  of  the  smaller 
beads  of  the  longer  type,  however,  appear  to  be  of  native  metal, 
for  they  are,  as  a  rule,  more  crudely  fashioned  than  the  larger 
specimens.  No  single  individual  appears  to  have  been  the  pos¬ 
sessor  of  more  than  a  few  copper  beads.  In  the  graves  they  were 
usually  found  singly  or  in  groups  of  only  a  few,  sometimes  in  com¬ 
pany  with  beads  of  shell.  Plate  18,  a,  shows  the  various  forms. 
The  six  small  beads  in  a  row  of  nearly  uniform  size,  were  taken 
from  near  the  wrist  of  a  skeleton,  and  probably  formed  part  of  a 
bracelet.  Those  in  the  lower  row  were  found  with  the  skeleton  of 
a  child,  and  still  retain  their  position  on  the  original  string. 

A  few  bell-shaped  tinklers  are  illustrated  in  f.  They  were  ob¬ 
tained  from  both  cache-pits  and  graves.  In  recent  times  they  are 
made  of  tin,  and  are  used  extensively  by  the  Indians  as  ornamental 


70 


INDIAN  VILLAGE  SITE  AND  CEMETERY 


pendants.  The  smaller  end  is  clasped  to  a  thong,  and  a  bunch  of 
hair,  usually  dyed  a  brilliant  color,  often  projects  from  the  larger 
end. 

The  band  bent  into  a  circle  and  figured  in  b,  was  probably  for 
the  finger,  for  four  similar  rings  made  of  brass  and  still  clasping 
the  phalanges  of  the  fingers  of  a  skeleton  were  taken  from  a  grave 
by  Professor  Putnam.  One  of  these  is  shown  in  i.  A  few  rings 
made  of  native  copper  beaten  into  a  small  rod  and  bent  into  shape 
(c)  were  recovered  from  the  cache-pits,  as  were  also  the  serpent  or 
lightning  symbols  illustrated  in  d. 

The  largest  amount  of  copper  found  with  a  burial  was  taken 
from  Trench  I,  grave  60,  by  Mr.  Swanton.  There  were  several 
pieces  of  sheet  copper  with  one  or  more  of  their  edges  clinched  over 
pieces  of  buckskin.  Two  of  the  larger  are  figured  in  g.  They  lay 
near  the  thighs,  and  seem  to  have  ornamented  a  girdle.  With  this 
burial  were  also  found  seven  copper  beads  and  pendants,  the  iron 
bead  illustrated  in  s,  and  fifty-five  shell  beads.  Taking  into  con¬ 
sideration  the  iron  bead,  which  appears  to  have  been  made  from 
a  piece  of  sheet  iron,  it  is  not  improbable  that  the  copper  also  may 
be  of  European  origin,  as  there  seems  to  be  no  evidence  that  the 
proto-historic  Indians  of  southern  Ohio  used  meteoric  iron  in 
fashioning  their  ornaments,  as  did  the  builders  of  the  great  earth¬ 
works  of  this  region.  Small  copper  ornaments  with  two  of  their 
edges  bent  over,  apparently  for  securing  to  thongs,  are  figured  in  h. 
These  are  from  graves. 

Only  a  few  examples  of  overlaying  with  thin  copper  sheets  were 
recovered.  The  first  of  these  were  two  small  pear-shaped  objects 
about  three-eighths  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  made  of  wood  and  cov¬ 
ered  with  thin  copper,  which  is  now  badly  corroded.  The  salts  of 
copper  have  preserved  one  of  the  wooden  forms  perfectly.  These 
were  found  with  the  skeleton  of  a  child,  in  company  with  several 
beads  and  a  few  coils  of  copper  wire,  evidently  of  native  make. 

The  other  examples  of  overlaying  were  thin  discs  of  bone,  one- 
half  to  three-fourths  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  covered  on  one  side 
with  thin  copper,  the  edges  of  which  were  turned  over  and  clinched 
upon  the  opposite  side  (e).  Vegetal  fiber  was  placed  over  the  discs 
before  the  copper  sheet  was  applied. 

One  of  these  discs  was  found  beneath  the  lower  jaw  of  a  skeleton. 
The  other  three  came  from  a  cache-pit.  In  the  Journal  of  the 


Peabody  Museum  Papers 


Vol.  VIII,  Plate  18 


Madisonville  Site 

a-h,  l,  m,  Personal  ornaments  and  other  objects  of  copper;  i-k,  n.  Personal  ornaments  of 
brass;  o-r,  Iron  blades;  s,  Iron  bead;  t.  Iron  sword  guard  from  grave.  (About  §.) 


NEAR  MADISONVILLE,  OHIO 


71 


Cincinnati  Society  of  Natural  History,  July,  1880,  p.  131,  is  figured 
a  crude  bell  or  rattle  from  this  site.  It  was  made  of  a 

single  piece  of  copper  of  irregular  shape,  the  edges  of  which  have  been  brought 
together  so  as  to  form  a  ball,  or  rather  like  a  sleigh  bell,  having  an  irregular 
opening  on  one  side.  A  small  hole  was  punched  through  the  top  and  a  strip 
of  copper  doubled  up  and  the  ends  pushed  through  the  opening  from  the  in¬ 
side,  forming  a  handle.  Inside  this  bell  is  a  fragment  of  copper  about  the  size 
of  a  large  pea  and  when  the  ornament  is  shaken  it  produces  a  rattling  or  tinkling 
sound. 

Perhaps  the  most  interesting  objects  of  this  metal  are  the  two 
double  crosses  illustrated  in  1,  m.  The  first  of  these  was  found 
with  a  skeleton  by  Dr.  Metz.  The  account  of  the  discovery 
follows: 1 

On  Thursday,  October  28,  Skeleton  No.  8  was  found,  an  adult  male,  with 
head  southeast,  length  5  feet  8  inches,  depth  15  inches.  A  broken  vessel  was 
found  at  the  right  of  the  head,  and  on  the  left  side  a  pipe  made  of  limestone, 
well  finished,  and  carved  to  represent  the  head  of  some  animal.  A  copper 
ornament  was  also  found  at  the  right  of  the  neck.  This  relic,  which  has  two 
bars  or  cross  arms,  is  made  of  a  very  thin  piece  of  copper,  rolled  or  beaten 
evenly,  with  a  small  perforation  at  one  end,  doubtless  for  suspensory  purposes. 

The  other  double  cross  was  taken  from  a  skeleton  by  Mr.  B.  W. 
Merwin  while  conducting  work  for  the  Museum  in  1911.  It  lay 
just  to  the  left  of  the  skull.  With  the  skeleton  were  also  a  stone 
pipe,  a  flint  point  on  ribs  of  the  right  side,  and  an  antler  harpoon 
point  near  left  humerus,  (plate  11,1).  A  flint  arrowpoint  was  em¬ 
bedded  in  the  frontal  bone  of  the  skull.  These  copper-  specimens 
at  once  recall  to  mind  the  double  crosses  of  silver  obtained  by  the 
Indians  from  the  Catholic  missionaries.  The  copper  crosses,  how¬ 
ever,  are  probably  of  Indian  make.  The  first  example  has  the 
appearance  of  having  been  roughly  cut  from  European  sheet  cop¬ 
per,  then  the  surface  and  edges  carefully  finished  by  grinding. 
The  second  specimen  has  more  the  appearance  of  being  made  of 
native  copper.  Only  a  chemical  analysis,  however,  can  settle 
these  points. 

Personal  Ornaments  of  Brass.  A  cross  cut  from  sheet  brass, 
and  of  the  same  general  form  as  those  above  described,  but  having 
one  cross-bar  instead  of  two,  is  illustrated  in  n,  plate  18.  This  was 
found  with  the  skeleton  of  a  child  by  Professor  Putnam  in  1882, 


1  Journal  of  the  Cincinnati  Society  of  Natural  History ,  July,  1880,  p.-133. 


72 


INDIAN  VILLAGE  SITE  AND  CEMETERY 


together  with  a  few  copper  beads  and  spirals  of  brass  wire,  and  a 
pottery  vessel  of  the  usual  type  having  four  ears  or  handles.  One 
of  the  beads  is  shown  at  the  left  in  the  upper  row  in  a,  and  two  of 
the  spirals  are  illustrated  in  k.  This  is  one  of  the  most  instructive 
burials  found  during  the  explorations,  as  it  definitely  connects 
this  form  of  cross  with  the  proto-historic  period,  and  also  proves 
that  the  pottery  vessels  of  the  type  so  characteristic  of  this  ceme¬ 
tery  were  in  use  at  this  time. 

An  interesting  copper  cross  of  somewhat  similar  design,  from  a 
stone  grave  near  Nashville,  Tennessee,  is  in  the  Museum  collec¬ 
tion.  This  is  illustrated  on  page  98  of  the  third  volume  of  the 
Reports  of  the  Peabody  Museum.  No  other  object  from  this  group 
of  Tennessee  graves  shows  indication  of  contact  with  Europeans, 
and  perhaps  this  specimen  bears  no  relation  to  the  Christian  cross. 

A  few  beads  made  of  European  sheet  brass  and  of  the  same  type 
as  those  of  copper  were  obtained  from  different  cache-pits.  Two 
of  these  are  shown  in  j. 

In  1882,  Professor  Putnam  opened  a  grave  in  which  were  the 
skeletons  of  a  woman  and  child.  Accompanying  them  were  twenty- 
two  copper  beads,  varying  from  one  to  two  and  one-quarter  inches 
in  length,  and  about  one -quarter  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  On  the  first 
phalanges  of  the  first  and  second  fingers  of  each  hand  of  the  woman, 
were  rings  made  of  bands  of  sheet  brass,  about  three-fourths  of  an 
inch  wide  and  two  and  one-half  inches  long,  each  bent  into  a  circle 
with  the  ends  of  the  strip  overlapping.  One  of  these  is  illustrated 
in  i.  A  number  of  fragments  of  both  sheet  brass  and  sheet  copper 
were  found  in  the  general  refuse  of  the  site. 

Iron  Objects.  On  plate  18,  p,  is  shown  what  is  apparently  a 
badly  corroded  iron  adze  blade.  It  was  found  four  feet  beneath 
the  surface  in  a  cache-pit.  A  second  blade  is  illustrated  in  r,  from 
three  feet  one  inch  below  the  surface  in  another  pit.  Both  of  these 
were  recovered  by  Mr.  Swanton.  Two  more  of  the  same  general 
form  are  figured  in  o  and  q.  These  blades  wei’e  obtained  by  the 
Indians  either  directly  or  indirectly  from  white  traders. 

In  the  leaf  mould,  and  in  one  instance  twenty  inches  beneath 
the  surface  of  a  cache-pit,  fragments  of  iron  objects  were  found 
which  were  probably  lost  by  the  early  white  settlers  of  the  region. 

The  only  iron  objects  obtained  from  graves  are  the  bead  illus¬ 
trated  in  s,  already  referred  to  on  page  70,  and  the  sword  guard 


Peabody  Museum  Papers 


Vol.  VIII,  Plate  19 


Madisonville  Site 
Tobacco  pipes.  (About  §.) 


NEAR  MADISON VILLE ,  OHIO 


73 


shown  in  t.  The  latter  was  found  over  the  chest  of  the  skeleton 
of  an  adult  female.  There  were  also  three  bone  beads  at  the  neck 
and  six  copper  beads  near  the  hands  of  the  skeleton.  I  have  been 
unable  to  ascertain  with  any  degree  of  certainty  the  probable  origin 
of  the  European  sword  guard  or  the  approximate  date  of  its  manu¬ 
facture. 

Glass  Beads.  A  few  globular  blue  glass  beads,  about  three- 
sixteenths  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  were  found  near  the  skull  of  a 
skeleton  of  a  child,  by  Mr.  Swanton.  These  were  of  the  same  kind 
as  those  obtained  during  the  exploration  by  the  Museum  of  the 
proto-historic  Iroquoian  cemetery  in  Erie  County,  New  York. 

Mr.  Swanton  also  found  fragments  of  blue  beads  in  three  cache- 
pits,  and  Mr.  B.  W.  Merwin  reports  the  finding  of  one  such  bead 
in  a  fourth  pit.  The  recovery  of  iron  objects  or  brass  or  glass 
beads,  from  at  least  nine  cache-pits  and  five  graves,  seems  to  indi¬ 
cate  beyond  question  that  this  site  was  not  abandoned  by  the. 
Indians  till  after  their  contact  with  Europeans  either  directly  or 
through  their  Indian  neighbors;  but  the  scarcity  of  such  objects,  as 
well  as  their  nature,  also  indicates  that  the  site  was  deserted  long 
before  the  arrival  of  English  settlers. 

Tobacco  Pipes.  A  large  number  of  tobacco  pipes  were  found, 
the  majority  being  obtained  from  cache-pits  or  by  general  digging. 
A  few  occurred  with  skeletons.  Most  of  them  were  made  from  the 
limestone  of  the  region.  Some  were  of  sandstone,  while  a  small 
number  were  of  other  varieties,  including  serpentine  and  red  pipe- 
stone.  Two  or  three  rude  pipe  bowls  were  found  made  from  sections 
of  deer  antler,  also  fragments  of  four  or  five  pottery  pipes,  fash¬ 
ioned  of  fine  clay  of  a  kind  very  different  from  that  used  by  the 
inhabitants  in  making  pottery.  Judging  by  the  fragments,  these 
clay  pipes  resembled  those  of  the  Iroquoian  and  Algonquian  tribes 
of  the  East,  and  were  probably  imported  from  that  section.  A 
considerable  number  of  stone  pipes  in  the  process  of  making  were 
recovered,  which  indicates  that  most  of  the  finished  specimens 
secured  were  made  by  the  inhabitants  and  were  not  obtained  from 
the  neighboring  tribes. 

The  majority  of  the  specimens  were  of  the  simple  designs  and 
forms  figured  in  plate  19,  a-i.  They  were  usually  without  orna¬ 
mentation.  A  few  were  ornamented  with  notches  or  with  designs 
in  incised  lines,  as  shown  in  a,  b,  e,  and  f.  A  very  good  figure  of 


74 


INDIAN  VILLAGE  SITE  AND  CEMETERY 


the  thunderbird  is  engraved  upon  both  sides  of  b ;  while  the  peculiar 
eye  designs,  also  occurring  on  certain  shell  gorgets,  bone  beads, 
and  pebbles  (plates  16,  g,  17,  g,  20,  a,  b),  are  engraved  upon  either 
side  of  e  and  f.  A  small  animal  figure,  probably  the  totem  mark 
of  the  owner,  is  shown  on  the  narrow  side  of  e. 


Fig.  5.  Madisonville  Site 

Tobacco  pipe  of  clay-stone,  representing  an  owl.  Found  with  a  skeleton 
in  Trench  I  in  1911.  (About  $.) 


Lightning  symbols  appear  upon  either  side  of  the  specimens 
figured  in  i  and  1.  The  pipe  shown  in  j,  has  two  horn-like  append¬ 
ages  projecting  backward  from  either  side  of  the  opening  forming 
the  bowl. 

The  pipe  figured  in  k  is  made  of  nearly  black  serpentine  and  is 
highly  polished.  It  is  evidently  intended  to  represent  the  turkey, 
for  the  “  beard,”  peculiar  to  this  bird,  appears  upon  the  breast. 
It  was  taken  from  a  cache-pit  by  Dr.  Metz  in  1881. 

A  fish-shaped  pipe  of  limestone,  also  found  in  a  cache-pit,  is  fig¬ 
ured  in  m.  It  differs  from  most  suecimens  by  having  the  hole  for 
the  reception  of  the  stem  at  the  side. 

Two  interesting  effigy  pipes  are  illustrated  in  o,  p.  Apparently 
swimming  birds  are  represented,  both  of  them  being  in  the  position 
usually  taken  while  oiling  the  feathers.  The  first  of  these  is  shown 
with  two  heads.  This  was  foimd  beside  the  skull  of  a  skeleton  in 
Trench  IV,  by  Mr.  Swanton,  as  will  be  seen  by  referring  to  plate  3, 
a.  The  other  is  from  a  cache-pit. 


Peabody  Museum  Papers 


Yol.  VIII,  Plate  20 


Mabisonville  Site 

a-c,  Pebbles  with  incised  drawings  upon  both  sides;  d,  e,  Pebbles  with  incised  drawings;  /,  h,  i. 
Pebbles  but  slightly  modified  by  art,  these  are  probably  fetishes;  a,  k,  Pendants  of  lignite,  the 
first  of  these  represents  a  buffalo;  j,  Effigy  of  a  turkey  cut  from  antler.  (About  §.) 


NEAR  MADISONVILLE,  OHIO 


75 


The  specimen  figured  in  q,  of  limestone,  was  taken  from  near 
the  head  of  a  skeleton  by  Professor  Putnam  in  1882. 

The  largest  and  finest  pipe  obtained  during  the  explorations  is 
illustrated  in  figure  5.  It  represents  an  owl,  and  was  found  with 
skeleton  9  in  Trench  I,  by  B.  W.  Merwin  in  1911.  It  measures 
about  five  and  three-fourths  inches  in  length,  including  tail,  which 
has  been  broken  off.  The  material  is  a  variety  of  fire-clay  or  clay- 
stone  of  mottled  gray  color.  It  is  well  modeled  and  carefully  fin¬ 
ished.  The  hole  for  the  stem  is  in  the  center  of  the  back,  while 
the  cavity  for  the  tobacco  is  in  the  neck. 

Incised  Drawings,  etc.  If  the  art  of  the  occupants  of  the  Mad- 
isonville  site  is  indicated  at  all  clearly  by  the  few  crude  drawings 
and  sculptures  which  were  recovered,  it  seems  to  have  reached 
about  the  same  stage  of  development  as  that  of  the  surrounding 
Algonquian  tribes  at  the  time  of  their  first  intercourse  with  Euro¬ 
peans.  It  was  far  inferior  to  the  art  of  the  builders  of  the  great 
earthworks,  who  preceded  them  in  southern  Ohio. 

It  is  highly  probable  that  the  painted  designs  and  quill  work 
patterns  of  this  people  on  dressed  skin  and  other  perishable  objects 
were  of  a  higher  grade  than  one  would  be  led  to  believe,  judging 
from  the  crude  efforts  illustrated  on  plate  20. 

A  thin  waterworn  pebble  of  lignite,  from  a  cache-pit,  with  de¬ 
signs  upon  either  side  is  shown  in  a.  The  edges  are  ornamented  by 
a  series  of  short  lines,  and  upon  one  side  is  incised  the  picture  of  a 
horned  serpent,  a  small  quadruped,  and  what  appears  to  be  a 
mythical  monster  with  open  mouth  and  prominent  teeth.  The 
characteristic  triple  eye  design  occurring  on  certain  shell  gorgets 
and  pipes  from  this  site  is  also  shown  in  the  figure,  which  makes  it 
probable  that  the  creature  represented  belonged  to  the  mythology 
of  the  people.  A  representation  of  this  same  being  is  also  etched 
upon  the  opposite  side  of  the  pebble. 

The  same  figure,  more  crudely  drawn,  is  scratched  upon  either 
side  of  the  flat  clay  stone  pebble  shown  in  b.  Subsequently,  prob¬ 
ably  on  account  of  the  resemblance  of  the  pebble  to  the  outline  of 
a  bird’s  head,  two  large  circles  were  cut  on  opposite  sides  to  rep¬ 
resent  the  eyes  of  the  bird,  and  in  front  of  each  a  shallow  hole  was 
drilled  to  indicate  the  nostrils. 

It  is  a  fact  well  known  to  ethnologists  that  natural  objects  re¬ 
sembling  human  or  animal  forms,  or  any  of  their  parts,  were  sup- 


76 


INDIAN  VILLAGE  SITE  AND  CEMETERY 


posed  to  possess  supernatural  powers,  and  were  often  used  as 
fetishes.  A  number  of  such  objects  were  recovered.  In  most 
instances  their  forms  were  but  slightly  modified  by  the  Indians. 
Usually  only  a  mouth  or  eyes  were  added  to  accentuate  the  realistic 
appearance. 

In  addition  to  the  one  above  referred  to,  (b),  good  examples  are 
illustrated  on  the  plate.  In  the  head  shown  in  h,  the  pebble  is 
unmodified  with  the  exception  of  a  hole  for  the  eye  upon  either 
side,  the  groove  for  the  mouth,  a  small  notch  near  the  end  opposite 
the  head,  and  the  beginning  of  a  perforation  for  suspension. 

The  form  of  the  clay  concretion  (f),  is  also  wholly  natural,  with 
the  exception  of  the  groove  for  the  mouth  which  has  been  cut 
upon  both  sides.  In  the  fragment  of  another  clay  object,  which 
somewhat  resembles  the  human  profile  (i),  the  grooves  which  may 
represent  the  mouth,  the  scratches  near  the  nose  and  surrounding 
the  eye,  and  the  etched  band  on  the  forehead,  are  artificial.  The 
rest  of  the  specimen,  including  the  perforation,  is  natural.  Other 
fetishes  of  this  class,  cut  from  diseased  antler  tips,  are  figured  on 
plate  17,  e. 

The  small  object  shown  in  g,  plate  15,  is  made  of  bone  and  is 
carefully  polished.  While  it  resembles  some  of  the  fetishes  above 
referred  to,  it  is  probably  an  implement,  consisting  of  a  handle 
terminating  in  what  was  evidently  intended  to  represent  the  head 
of  a  bird.  The  eyes  and  the  opening  of  the  beak  are  indicated  on 
either  side  by  a  dot  and  an  incised  line.  A  beautifully  finished  tool, 
similar  in  form  but  much  larger,  which  was  obtained  from  a 
Mandan  site  in  North  Dakota,  is  illustrated  in  the  third  volume 
of  the  Peabody  Museum  Papers,  page  172.  One  end  was  in  the 
form  of  a  “  crane’s  head.”  This  portion  was  serrated  along  its 
upper  and  lower  edges,  and  the  implement  quite  closely  resembles 
a  modeler’s  tool. 

The  lignite  pendant  illustrated  in  g,  plate  20,  is  probably  in¬ 
tended  to  represent  a  buffalo.  Another,  of  the  same  material, 
showing  a  simple  arrangement  of  incised  lines  is  figured  in  k. 
These  two  were  found  by  Mr.  Swanton  during  general  excavations. 
A  figure  cut  from  antler  and  resembling  a  turkey  cock  with  its 
tail  spread,  appears  in  j.  A  part  of  a  nearly  black  pebble,  illus¬ 
trated  in  c,  has  an  etched  design  upon  either  side.  The  drawing 
at  the  right  seems  to  represent  a  quadruped,  with  the  head,  tail, 


Peabody  Museum  Papers 


Vol.  VIII,  Plate  21 


Madisonville  Site 

a-d.  Charred  fragments  of  bags  made  of  bast;  e,  Charred  fragment  of  wooden  bowl;  f-h, 
Grooved  stone  finishers;  i-k,  Stone  tablets,  use  unknown;  l,  m,  Discoidal  stones.  (About  J.) 


NEAR  MADISONVILLE,  OHIO 


77 


and  the  greater  part  of  the  body  appearing  on  the  fragment.  The 
lower  portion  is  missing.  Upon  the  opposite  side  is  etched  what 
appears  to  be  a  bird. 

A  number  of  small  stones,  bearing  designs  which  are  to  us  unin¬ 
telligible,  were  found  in  the  general  refuse;  one  is  shown  in  d. 

The  scene  represented  on  the  small  pebble  illustrated  in  e,  shows 
the  upper  portion  of  three  human  figures  with  arms  extended  and 
wave-like  lines  below.  These  lines  may  indicate  water. 

The  objects  illustrated  upon  this  plate  are  from  cache- pits  or 
were  found  while  excavating.  None  of  them  are  from  graves. 

Textile  Fabrics  and  Wooden  Utensils.  Almost  nothing  remains 
to  indicate  the  types  of  basketry,  bags  and  other  fabrics,  or  the 
various  forms  of  wooden  objects  used  by  the  inhabitants  of  this 
site.  Pottery,  stone  and  bone  implements  formed,  of  course,  but 
a  very  small  portion  of  the  artifacts  of  the  people. 

The  few  charred  remains  of  the  more  perishable  objects,  how¬ 
ever,  indicate  that  their  bags  and  wooden  utensils,  and  probably 
their  basketry  also,  were  similar  to  those  of  the  surrounding 
country. 

On  plate  21,  d,  is  illustrated  a  charred  fragment  of  the  border  of 
a  bag  made  of  coarse  bast,  which  was  taken  from  a  cache-pit  con¬ 
taining  about  three  bushels  of  carbonized  corn.  Another  fragment 
of  probably  the  same  bag,  is  shown  in  a.  The  latter  drawing  is  from 
a  sketch  made  by  Dr.  Metz,  at  the  time  the  fragment  was  un¬ 
covered.  In  removing  the  “  matting,”  however,  it  crumbled  to 
pieces.  Dr.  Metz’s  sketch,  together  with  the  fragment  of  the 
border  (d),  show  that  the  bag  was  technically  identical  with  others 
of  coarse  bast,  which  were,  until  very  recently,  common  among  the 
Ojibwa  and  the  people  of  the  region  south  of  the  Great  Lakes. 

In  the  collections  of  the  Museum  is  a  bag  of  the  same  weave  and 
probably  of  the  same  material,  obtained  from  the  Sauk  and  Fox. 
It  is  strongly  made  of  coarse  bast  and  is  well  adapted  for  holding 
and  transporting  shelled  corn. 

Fragments  of  the  bag  found  in  the  pit  by  Dr.  Metz  were  mixed 
with  the  charred  corn,  and  at  least  a  portion  of  this  corn  had 
doubtless  been  deposited  in  the  bag. 

A  lower  corner  of  another  bag  of  bast  is  illustrated  in  c.  This 
was  found  with  charred  corn  in  a  pit  by  Mr.  Swanton.  In  the 
Ojibwa  exhibit  in  the  Peabody  Museum  is  a  bag  of  the  same 


78 


INDIAN  VILLAGE  SITE  AND  CEMETERY 


technic  and  material,  which  has  the  border  at  the  opening  also 
finished  as  in  d. 

The  fragments  of  braided  cordage  shown  in  b  were  found  with 
charred  material  in  another  pit.  They  are  probably  the  remains 
of  cords  for  closing  the  mouths  of  bags  similar  to  those  above 
described. 

In  common  with  most  of  the  tribes  of  the  eastern  section  of  the 
United  States,  this  people  undoubtedly  were  well  supplied  with 
wooden  bowls  and  platters.  Only  one  small  carbonized  fragment, 
however,  was  brought  to  fight  during  the  Museum’s  explorations. 
This  was  taken  from  a  cache-pit  near  the  southern  edge  of  Trench 
K  by  B.  W.  Merwin,  and  is  figured  in  e.  The  broken  lines  show 
the  approximate  form  of  the  bowl. 

Wooden  bowls  and  platters,  especially  among  the  Algonquian 
tribes,  were  of  excellent  design  and  workmanship.  They  were 
usually  made  of  the  knotty  or  burly  portions  of  maple  or  other 
hard  wood,  and  the  rim  was  often  ornamented  with  a  representa¬ 
tion  of  the  head  of  a  bird  or  animal  after  the  manner  shown  in  the 
illustration.1 

Pottery.  The  pottery  recovered  from  this  site  shows  a  consider¬ 
able  variety  in  form,  as  will  be  seen  by  referring  to  the  plates.  Most 
of  the  vessels  are  of  the  cooking-pot  type,  although  a  few  food 
bowls  were  found,  and  also  several  erratic  forms  which  do  not 
seem  to  belong  to  either  of  these  groups.  The  ware  is  as  a  rule 
well-made  and  fairly  durable.  The  material  is  the  clay  of  the 
region  tempered  principally  with  ground  or  pulverized  unio  shells. 
Approximately  half  of  the  vessels  show  the  impression  of  cord- 
wrapped  paddles  used  in  their  making.  The  texture  of  the  ware 
is  well  brought  out  in  the  photographs,  plate  22.  Nearly  all  of  the 
pots  are  furnished  with  ears,  usually  four  but  sometimes  two  only, 
which  were  used  for  holding  in  place  bands  or  thongs  to  which  sus¬ 
pending  cords  were  attached.  It  does  not  seem  to  have  been  cus¬ 
tomary  to  fasten  suspending  cords  directly  to  the  ears,  although 
this  may  have  been  done  occasionally.  To  facilitate  the  carrying 
of  the  smaller  pots  of  this  type,  the  Mandan  sometimes  tied  a 
thong  around  the  neck  of  the  vessel,  passing  it  through  the  ears, 
and  a  single  looped  handle  a  few  inches  long  was  made  by  again 

1  For  examples  of  other  bowls,  see  Willoughby,  Wooden  Bowls  of  the  Algonquian  Indians , 
American  Anthropologist,  vol.  x,  p.  423,  1908. 


Peabody  Museum  Papers 


Vol.  VIII,  Plate  22 


Madisonville|Site 

Typical  pottery  vessels  from  graves.  (About  p) 


NEAR  MADISONVILLE,  OHIO 


79 


tying  the  ends  of  the  thong  together.  Most  of  the  smaller  un¬ 
broken  pots,  holding  approximately  a  pint  to  a  gallon,  such  as  are 
illustrated  on  plate  23,  with  the  exception  of  n,  and  s,  are  from 
graves.  They  were  more  commonly  placed  near  the  head,  in  the 
manner  illustrated  in  plates  3  and  4.  See  also  table  on  page  16. 
These  pots  evidently  contained  food,  in  some  cases  probably  samp 
or  maize  porridge  or  a  similar  substance,  shown  by  a  deposit  on  the 
inner  side  of  many  of  the  vessels,  which  marked  the  original  level  of 
the  semi-liquid  contents.  As  the  water  slowly  evaporated,  the  bran 
or  other  material  near  the  surface  was  deposited  on  the  inner  side 
of  the  pot  in  a  narrow  horizontal  band  or  line  more  clearly  marked 
at  the  top,  which,  although  not  very  conspicuous,  can  be  easily 
traced.  Many  of  the  vessels  contained  a  single  valve  of  a  unio 
shell  which  served  as  a  spoon,  and  sometimes  bones  of  food  animals 
were  also  noted. 

The  majority  of  the  vessels  found  with  skeletons  were  of  the 
style  shown  in  plate  23,  h,  i.  They  varied  considerably  in  size  and 
contour,  but  were  usually  furnished  with  four  ears;  and  were,  as 
a  rule,  without  ornamentation  with  the  exception  of  slight  inden¬ 
tations  around  the  rim  and  the  usual  cord-wrapped  paddle  marks 
on  the  body  of  the  pot  as  shown  in  plate  22.  Few  vessels  without 
ears  were  taken  from  graves;  two  are  illustrated  in  f,  g,  plate  23. 
Cups  with  a  single  handle  or  ear  (a)  are  rare.  Quite  a  number  of 
pots  having  two  plain  ears  and  two  in  the  form  of  small  quadrupeds 
with  the  usual  passage  between  the  body  of  the  animal  and  the 
neck  of  the  vessel,  as  shown  in  r,  t,  accompanied  skeletons.  In  a 
few  instances  a  pair  of  lugs  curving  downward  replace  the  animals 
on  either  side  (q),  and  in  one  example  four  pairs  of  lugs  were  sub¬ 
stituted  for  the  usual  looped  ears  as  shown  in  e.  These  of  course 
were  intended  to  assist  in  holding  the  neck  band  in  place.  Bowls 
in  the  form  of  birds  or  quadrupeds  were  uncommon.  Besides  the 
one  illustrated  in  d,  fragments  of  two  or  three  similar  ones  were 
found  in  the  refuse,  also  several  heads  broken  from  bowls  of  the 
same  general  kind,  including  one  which  may  have  been  intended 
for  that  of  a  dog.  The  vessel  with  the  human  face  modeled  upon 
one  side,  shown  in  j,  plate  23,  is  the  only  example  of  this  type 
obtained.  This  was  found  near  the  head  of  a  skeleton.  But  one 
vessel  modeled  to  represent  a  pot  set  within  another  (plate  24,  j) 
was  obtained  during  the  exploration  by  the  Museum.  One  or  two 


80 


INDIAN  VILLAGE  SITE  AND  CEMETERY 


others,  however,  were  previously  taken  from  this  cemetery.  On 
plate  24,  k,  and  1,  are  figured  two  curious  vessels  with  solid  bases, 
one  of  which  has  been  broken  off.  These  are  now  in  the  collection 
of  the  Cincinnati  Museum.  The  unbroken  specimen  was  found 
with  a  skeleton  by  Dr.  Metz  many  years  ago.  The  base  of  a  third 
vessel  of  this  type  was  obtained  during  explorations  of  the  Museum. 
Food  bowls  of  forms  illustrated  in  m,  n,  and  o,  were  not  plentiful. 
Fragments  were  found  in  the  cache-pits  and  during  general  exca¬ 
vations.  Those  illustrated  are  restored  from  large  pieces.  The 
only  example  of  a  vessel  with  painted  decoration  known  to  the 
writer  from  this  site  is  in  the  Cincinnati  Museum.  It  is  illustrated 
in  b.  The  design  is  in  black  on  an  unpainted  ground  and  represents 
the  primitive  cosmic  symbol,  the  cross  within  a  circle,  and  a  dot 
for  each  quarter.  It  is  highly  probable  that  this  was  a  ceremonial 
bowl.  Fragments  of  cooking  pots  of  the  larger  sizes  were  found 
throughout  the  cache-pits  and  in  the  general  refuse.  One  of  the 
largest,  measuring  nineteen  inches  in  height  and  about  the  same  in 
diameter,  restored  from  fragments,  is  shown  on  plate  23,  s.  These 
large  pots  were  quite  common,  judging  from  the  numerous  sherds. 
They  were  not  found  with  burials,  as  they  were  evidently  not  in¬ 
tended  for  individual  food  containers,  but  were  used  in  preparing 
food  for  families  or  a  considerable  number  of  individuals.  Many  of 
these  larger  vessels  were  ornamented  with  incised  decoration  ap¬ 
plied  principally  to  the  neck.  The  prevailing  designs  are  variations 
of  the  guilloche  as  indicated  in  plate  24,  e,  f,  i,  but  many  of  the 
patterns  consist  of  a  herring-bone  arrangement  of  straight  lines 
or  lines  and  dots  as  in  c,  d,  g.  In  some  instances  the  ears  were 
quite  elaborately  decorated  with  straight  or  curved  lines.  A  few 
miniature  cups  were  found  and  a  small  number  of  little  clay  effigies 
of  animals  all  crudely  executed,  probably  the  work  of  children  or 
made  by  their  elders  for  toys. 

The  large  number  of  fragments  of  vessels  of  all  sizes  found  in  the 
cache-pits,  refuse  piles,  and  during  general  excavations,  indicate 
the  abundance  of  vessels  in  use,  as  well  as  the  long  occupation  of 
the  ground.  Perhaps  no  group  of  artifacts  from  this  site  is  more 
distinctive  than  the  pottery.  A  comparison  with  that  from  other 
village  sites  in  the  Little  Miami  Valley,  however,  notably  those 
near  Newtown,  and  certain  others  at  or  near  Fort  Ancient,  as  well 
as  from  such  widely  separated  localities  as  the  Feurt  site  near 


Peabody  Museum  Papers 


Vol.  VIII,  Plate  23 


Madisonville  Site 

With  the  exception  of  the  two  largest  pots  (n  and  s)  which  are  restored  from  fragments  found 
in  cache-pits,  the  specimens  here  shown  are  typical  vessels  from  graves.  (3*5.) 


/ 


Peabody  Museum  Papers 


Vol.  VIII,  Plate  24 


a,  j,  k,  l,  Pottery  vessels  from  graves;  b,  Small  bowl  with  primitive  cosmic  symbol  in  black; 
c-i,  Pots  with  incised  decorations,  restored  from  large  fragments  from  cache-pits;  m,  n,  o. 
Bowls  restored  from  large  fragments;  b,  k,  l,  Cincinnati  Museum.  OyV) 


NEAR  MADISONVILLE,  OHIO  81 

Portsmouth  and  the  Gartner  site  near  Chillicothe  in  the  Scioto 
Valley,  show  that  it  all  belongs  to  one  group.  This  is  true  also  of 
other  forms  of  artifacts  in  general.  Madisonville,  however,  seems 
to  have  been  the  most  important  center  yet  known  of  this  culture, 
and  the  pottery  in  general  had  reached  a  somewhat  higher  degree 
of  technical  excellence  here  than  in  the  other  localities  noted. 


THE  SKELETAL  REMAINS 


The  Collection  in  General.  In  the  various  collections  of  human 
remains  gathered  from  the  cemetery  near  Madisonville  by  the  ex¬ 
cavators  of  different  periods,  and  deposited  in  the  Peabody  Museum, 
86  crania  were  found  which  belonged  to  full-grown  individuals  and 
were  in  condition  to  be  measured.  Two  of  these  were  of  doubtful 
sex,  and  for  this  reason  the  measurements  have  not  been  included 
in  the  tables.  In  the  other  cases  sexual  differentiation  according 
to  the  usual  criteria  was  not  difficult.  The  majority  of  the  better 
preserved  crania  are  separated  from  their  bones  because  of  lack  of 
proper  storage  facilities  in  the  Museum,  and  so,  in  many  instances, 
the  bones  and  skull  of  the  same  individual  were  sexed  independ¬ 
ently.  Upon  comparison  of  the  separately  sexed  skulls  and  bones 
agreement  as  to  the  sex  assigned  by  the  observer  in  the  two  in¬ 
stances  was  found  in  every  case  except  one,  where  there  is  un¬ 
questionably  a  mixture  of  the  bones  of  two  individuals  of  different 
sexes  under  the  same  catalogue  number.  The  skeletal  material  was 
catalogued  according  to  graves  and  in  some  instances  the  graves 
contained  mixed  burials. 

It  was  not  possible  to  examine  and  make  a  full  report  upon  all 
of  the  skeletal  material  from  Madisonville,  and  the  total  number 
of  individuals  represented  in  the  material  studied  is  217.  Of  these 
111  were  adult  males,  60  adult  females,  16  adults  of  undetermined 
sex,  22  children  and  adolescents,  and  8  infants.  Many  of  the  skulls 
measured  were  sent  in  from  the  early  excavations  by  Metz  and  are 
unaccompanied  by  their  bones.  Most  of  the  bones  studied  are 
from  skeletons  of  which  the  skulls  are  fragmentary.  Apart  from 
the  crania,  the  bones  of  112  skeletons  were  studied,  including  90 
adults,  but  only  17  of  86  crania  measured  belong  with  these  adult 
skeletons  of  which  the  bones  were  studied. 

About  half  of  the  total  number  of  crania  measured,  including 
the  majority  of  the  best  preserved,  are  from  the  early  excavations 


83 


84 


INDIAN  VILLAGE  SITE  AND  CEMETERY 


of  Dr.  Metz  and  Professor  Putnam.  Of  the  remainder  about  half 
are  from  J.  R.  Swanton’s  excavations  and  half  from  R.  E.  Mer- 
win’s.  Most  of  the  bones  studied  are  from  the  excavations  of 
Mr.  Swanton  in  1897. 

The  measurements,  with  the  exception  of  the  cranial  capacities, 
were  taken  by  the  writer  with  accurate  instruments,  and,  unless 
otherwise  stated,  conform  to  the  national  agreements  of  Monaco 
and  Geneva.  The  cranial  capacities  were  measured  by  Mr.  George 
Schwab,  Associate  in  African  Archaeology  and  Ethnology  in  the 
Peabody  Museum,  according  to  the  method  of  Dr.  Hrdlicka,  and 
under  the  supervision  of  the  writer.  Mr.  Schwab  also  rendered 
valuable  assistance  in  the  preparation  of  this  paper  by  recording 
the  measurements  and  observations. 

The  observations  conform  to  the  system  devised  by  Dr.  Ales 
Hrdlicka,  and  in  use  in  the  Department  of  Physical  Anthropology 
in  the  United  States  National  Museum. 

For  comparative  material  in  the  study  of  the  crania  an  unpub¬ 
lished  doctoral  dissertation  by  the  late  R.  G.  Fuller,  on  the  crania 
from  the  Tennessee  Stone  Graves  in  the  Peabody  Museum,  has 
been  utilized.  This  study  of  a  series  of  188  crania  from  Tennessee 
was  prepared  by  Mr.  Fuller  under  the  direction  of  the  writer  and 
according  to  the  methods  in  use  in  the  Peabody  Museum  and  in 
the  National  Museum. 

Frequent  reference  has  been  made  also  to  an  article  by  F.  W. 
Langdon,  M.D.,  entitled  The  Madisonville  Prehistoric  Cemetery 
Anthropological  Notes,  Journal  of  the  Cincinnati  Society  of  Nat¬ 
ural  History,  vol.  iv,  no.  3,  October,  1881,  pp.  237-257.  This 
article  includes  an  examination  of  83  crania  from  the  early  exca¬ 
vations  in  the  Madisonville  cemetery  and  notes  on  the  pathology 
of  the  bones. 

Constant  use  has  been  made  of  two  studies  in  the  physical 
anthropology  of  the  American  Indians  by  Dr.  Ales  Hrdlicka:  Re¬ 
port  on  an  Additional  Collection  of  Skeletal  Remains,  from  Arkansas 
and  Louisiana,  a  reprint  from  the  Journal  of  the  Academy  of 
Natural  Sciences  of  Philadelphia,  vol.  xiv,  1909;  and  Physical 
Anthropology  of  the  Lenape  or  Delewares,  and  of  the  Eastern  Indians 
in  General,  Bulletin  62,  Bureau  of  American  Ethnology,  1916. 


NEAR  MADISONVILLE,  OHIO 


85 


Cranial  Deformation. 

Occipital  Deformation 

None  Slight  Medium  Pronounced  Total 


Males:  number .  14  34  1  4  53 

“  percent .  26.41  64.14  1.88  7.54  73.5 

Females :  number .  5  20  2  2  29 

“  per  cent .  17.25  68.96  6.89  6.89  82.7 


This  series  includes  comparatively  few  skulls  with  pronounced 
cranial  deformation,  as  the  table  above  shows.  A  considerable 
proportion  (26  per  cent  in  males  and  17  per  cent  in  females),  shows 
no  artificial  deformation  whatever,  and  in  the  majority  of  cases 
deformation,  where  present,  is  very  slight.  The  total  percentage 
of  male  crania  exhibiting  some  degree  of  deformation  is  73.5, 
while  the  corresponding  figure  in  the  case  of  the  females  is  82.7. 
In  115  male  crania  from  the  Tennessee  Stone  Graves,  Fuller 
found  63  or  54.7  per  cent  with  very  pronounced  occipital  flattening, 
and  a  series  of  70  female  crania  from  the  same  graves  included  34.2 
per  cent  of  markedly  deformed  crania.  This  does  not  take  into 
consideration  the  slight  degrees  of  deformation. 

Deformation  is  of  the  occipital  type  only  —  a  fact  noted  by 
Langdon  also  —  and  is  probably  due  to  a  slight  cradle-board 
flattening.  It  is  perhaps  of  interest  to  note  in  this  connection  that 
no  cases  were  observed  in  this  series  in  which  the  auditory  meatus 
seemed  compressed  in  an  antero-posterior  direction,  nor  were  bony 
exostoses  found  in  the  meatus  in  any  case,  although  they  occur  in 
13  per  cent  of  Fuller’s  Tennessee  series. 

It  is  of  some  importance  in  connection  with  the  utilization  of 
artificially  deformed  crania  for  purposes  of  craniometric  study  to 
attempt  to  ascertain  to  what  extent  the  original  form  has  been 
altered,  since  it  is  obvious  that  very  radical  changes  in  the  head- 
form  brought  about  by  this  cause  render  the  study  of  the  propor¬ 
tions  of  the  cranial  vault  useless,  unless  some  method  of  correcting 
for  deformation  is  available.  No  exact  method  exists,  and  with  a 
good  deal  of  reason  some  anthropologists  exclude  from  their  series 
for  measurement  all  crania  showing  pronounced  artificial  deforma¬ 
tion.  In  the  case  of  American  Indian  crania  the  debarring  of 
specimens  showing  artificial  deformation  would  mean  the  exclusion 
of  some  of  the  largest  and  most  important  groups. 


86 


INDIAN  VILLAGE  SITE  AND  CEMETERY 


In  the  present  investigation  an  attempt  has  been  made  to  as¬ 
certain  the  differences  in  cranial  indices  between  skulls  showing  no 
deformation  and  skulls  showing  medium  or  pronounced  defor¬ 
mation. 

Cranial  Vault  Indices. 

Cranial  Indices  of  Undeformed  Crania 


Dolicho.  Meso.  Brachy. 

Total 

Min. 

Max. 

Mean 

Males:  number .  .  . 

I  7  6 

14 

74.46 

85.80 

79.61 

“  per  cent. .  . 

.  .  7.14  50.0  42.85 

Females:  number. 

.  .  0  2  3 

5 

77.09 

83.04 

79.78 

Cranial  Indices 

of  Crania  with  Medium  or  Pronounced  Deformation 

Dolicho.  Meso.  Brachy. 

Total 

Min. 

Max. 

Mean 

Males:  number.  .  . 

. .  0  0  5 

5 

82.49 

90.9 

86.72 

Females:  number. 

.  .  0  0  4 

4 

84.21 

92.55 

87.56 

Cranial 

Indices  of  Crania  with 

Slight  Deformation 

Dolicho.  Meso.  Brachy. 

Total 

Min. 

Max. 

Mean 

Males:  Number.  . . 

. .  .  0  7  26 

33 

76.24 

92.31 

83.03 

“  per  cent . . . 

.  .  0  21.21  78.78 

Females:  number. 

. .  1  1  1  18 

20 

70.39 1 

88.62 

84.25 

per  cent. 

.  .  5.0  5.0  90.0 

Cranial  Indices  of  all  Crania 

Dolicho.  Meso.  . 

Brachy. 

Total 

Min. 

Max. 

Males:  number .  .  . 

.  1  14 

37 

52 

74.46 

92.31 

“  per  cent .  . 

.  1.92  26.92 

71.15 

Females:  number . 

.  1  3 

25 

29 

70.39 

92.55 

per  cent . 

.  3.44  10.34 

86.20 

Both  sexes:  number .  2  17 

62 

81 

70.39 

92.55 

per  cent .  2.47  20.98 

76.54 

It  is  apparent  from  the  consideration  of  the  tables  given  above 
that  the  nine  crania  of  our  series  exhibiting  medium  or  pronounced 
artificial  deformation  are  all  brachycephalic  skulls,  and  all  ex¬ 
tremely  brachycephalic,  with  the  exception  of  two  male  skulls, 
which  have  indices  of  82.58  and  82.49  respectively.  If  these  last 
had  not  been  artificially  deformed  they  might  have  been  meso- 
cephalic,  but  not  dolichocephalic.  The  others  belong  without  ques¬ 
tion  of  deformation  in  the  brachycephalic  class.  On  the  other 
hand,  of  19  undeformed  crania  9  are  brachycephalic,  so  that  it  ap- 

1  This  cranium  showed  a  slight  flattening  in  the  lambdoid  region  which  had  the  effect  of 
increasing  its  length. 


NEAR  MADISONVILLE,  OHIO 


87 


pears  that  a  minimum  of  about  half  of  our  series  would  be  brachy- 
cephalic  if  all  were  undeformed.  But  the  high  percentage  of 
brachycephaly  in  the  largest  sub-group,  that  of  crania  with  slight 
deformation  (78*78  per  cent  of  males  and  90  per  cent  of  females), 
indicates  that  a  higher  original  proportion  of  brachycephaly  than 
50  per  cent  is  to  be  expected  in  the  whole  series.  For  in  the  sub¬ 
group  with  slight  deformation  there  has  probably  been  very  little 
alteration  in  the  indices  through  this  cause,  and  many  of  the  crania 
exhibit  high  degrees  of  brachycephaly.  The  writer  is  inclined  to 
believe  therefore  that  the  percentages  given  for  brachycephaly 
for  the  whole  series  are  only  slightly  in  excess  of  the  figure  to  be 
expected  if  there  had  been  no  deformation. 

Of  17  crania  yielding  mesocephalic  indices,  9  are  undeformed 
and  8  show  slight  occipital  deformation.  The  slight  occipital  de¬ 
formation  has  perhaps  shifted  some  of  these  from  the  dolichocepha¬ 
lic  class  to  the  mesocephalic  class.  Of  the  7  mesocephalic  male 
skulls  with  slight  occipital  deformation,  4  have  indices  of  76,  one 
of  77,  and  2  of  78.  Of  the  undeformed  crania,  50  per  cent  are 
mesocephalic,  and  of  the  slightly  deformed  21.21  per  cent.  When 
we  consider  the  extreme  rarety  of  dolichocephaly  in  the  unde¬ 
formed  sub-group  (one  case  only),  it  will  appear  that  the  decrease 
in  mesocephaly  in  the  slightly  deformed  sub-group  is  in  accordance 
with  what  we  should  be  lead  to  expect  if  more  crania  were  shifted 
from  the  mesocephalic  to  the  brachycephalic  class  through  defor¬ 
mation  than  from  the  dolichocephalic  to  the  mesocephalic  class. 

In  order  to  check  still  further  the  effect  of  unintentional  arti¬ 
ficial  deformation  on  cranial  form,  the  writer  has  made  use  of  the 
series  in  the  Peabody  Museum  from  the  Tennessee  Stone  Graves, 
measured  by  R.  G.  Fuller,  to  show  the  cranial  indices  in  the  unde¬ 
formed  sub-group,  the  deformed  sub-group,  and  in  both  combined. 
In  this  series  occipital  deformation  is  much  more  pronounced,  and 
Fuller  states  that  a  slight  degree  of  frontal  deformation  may  often 
be  observed. 

Cranial  Indices  of  Undeformed  Tennessee  Crania 

Dolicho.  Meso.  Brachy.  Total  Min.  Max. 


Males:  number .  4  15  24  43  70  92 

“  per  cent .  , .  9.3  34.88  55.81 

Females:  number .  1  5  22  28  74  93 

“  percent .  3.57  17.85  78.57 


88 


INDIAN  VILLAGE  SITE  AND  CEMETERY 


Cranial  Indices  of  Deformed  Tennessee  Crania 


Dolicho.  Meso.  Brachy.  Total  Min.  Max. 

Males:  number .  0  1  62  63  79  105 

“  percent .  0  1.58  98.41 

Females:  number .  0  0  36  36  81  106 

“  percent .  0  0  100.00 

Cranial  Indices  of  all  Tennessee  Crania 

Dolicho.  Meso.  Brachy.  Total  Min.  Max. 

Males:  number 1 .  5  18  92  115  70  105 

“  percent .  4.34  15.65  80.0 

Females:  number 1 .  1  6  63  70  74  106 

“  percent .  1.42  8.56  90.0 

Both  sexes:  number 1 .  6  24  155  185  70  106 

“  percent .  3.24  12.97  83.78 


If  we  compare  the  above  tables  with  the  similar  tables  for  the 
sub-groups  according  to  deformation  in  our  Madisonville  series, 
it  will  be  observed  first  of  all  that  the  undeformed  Tennessee 
crania  include  a  larger  percentage  of  brachycephals  than  the  cor¬ 
responding  Madisonville  sub-group  —  an  excess  amounting  to 
about  13  per  cent  in  the  males.  In  the  entire  series  the  percentage 
of  brachycephals  for  both  males  and  females  combined  is  83.78 
against  76.54  in  our  Madisonville  series.  The  deformed  Tennessee 
crania  include  no  dolichocephals  and  but  one  mesocephal,  whereas 
in  our  series  one  dolichocephal  and  8  mesocephals  show  slight  de¬ 
formation.  As  the  percentage  of  mesocephalic  crania  in  the  Ten¬ 
nessee  series  is  smaller  in  the  undeformed  sub-group  than  in  the 
corresponding  Madisonville  sub-group,  there  were  probably  fewer 
Tennessee  individuals  of  hereditarily  mesocephalic  crania  who 
could  be  shifted  into  the  brachycephalic  class  through  accidental 
deformation.  This  may  partly  account  for  the  smaller  excess  in 
proportions  of  brachycephals  in  the  entire  Tennessee  series  over 
that  in  the  entire  Madisonville  series  as  compared  with  the  cor¬ 
responding  proportions  in  the  undeformed  sub-group.  But  on  the 
other  hand,  only  61.6  per  cent  of  the  Tennessee  series  show  defor¬ 
mation  as  against  73.5  in  our  series.  Of  the  Tennessee  brachy¬ 
cephals,  29  per  cent  show  no  deformation,  against  11  per  cent  of 
our  brachycephals.  This  difference  may  be  due  to  the  somewhat 
more  rugged  character  of  the  Tennessee  crania,  which  might  render 


1  Includes  several  crania  in  which  measurements  were  approximate. 


NEAR  MADISONVILLE,  OHIO 


89 


them  more  resistant  against  deformation;  it  may  be  due  to  the 
personal  equation  of  the  two  different  observers  in  recording  defor¬ 
mations;  it  may  be  due  to  error  incident  to  the  sampling  process, 
since  both  series  are  comparatively  small,  and  our  entire  series  in¬ 
cludes  81  cranial  indices  as  against  185  in  the  Tennessee  series. 

The  examination  of  the  Tennessee  series  confirms  our  conclu¬ 
sion  that  accidental  occipital  deformation  affects  dolichocephalic 
crania  very  little,  mesocephalic  crania  slightly  more,  and  brachy- 
cephalic  crania  most  of  all. 

Assuming  artificial  deformation  to  have  been  caused  by  pressure 
of  the  occiput  on  a  hard  cradle  board,  it  seems  clear  that  this  cause 
would  naturally  affect  round-headed  infants  to  a  greater  extent 
than  long-headed  infants,  for  if  the  head  of  the  child  is  free  to  turn 
from  side  to  side,  the  tendency  for  the  dolichocephalic  child  with 
the  protruding  occiput  is  to  rest  the  head  on  one  side  or  other 
rather  than  on  the  back.  On  the  other  hand,  a  brachycephalic 
child  with  an  occiput  more  or  less  flat  is  likely  to  rest  on  the  back 
of  the  head  rather  than  on  the  side  Again,  if  the  head  is  fixed  so 
that  it  must  rest  on  the  occiput  the  greater  convexity  of  the  long¬ 
headed  occiput  presents  less  surface  for  deformation  than  the 
relatively  flat  occiput  of  the  round  head. 

On  the  whole  the  present  writer  is  inclined  to  believe  that  radical 
changes  in  head  form  were  not  usually  brought  about  by  uninten¬ 
tional  occipital  deformation,  but  that  the  most  of  crania  affected 
thereby  were  originally  brachycephalic  or  sub-brachycephalic. 
Some  few  dolichocephalic  crania  may  have  been  transformed  into 
mesocephaly;  more  were  probably  transferred  from  the  higher 
grades  of  mesocephaly  to  brachycephaly;  still  more  brachycephalic 
crania  were  made  increasingly  so. 

It  remains  to  compare  the  cranial  indices  in  our  series  with  those 
of  the  group  studied  by  Langdon,  and  with  other  groups.  In  rear¬ 
ranging  his  seriations  in  accordance  with  the  modern  divisions  of 
the  index,  only  crania  which  have  been  sexed  have  been  included. 

Cranial  Indices  of  Madisonville  Crania  (Langdon) 

Dolicho.  Meso.  Brachy.  Total 


Males:  number .  1  12  23  36 

“  per  cent .  2.77  33.33  63.88 

Females:  number .  2  6  14  22 

“  per  cent .  9.09  27.27  63.63 


90 


INDIAN  VILLAGE  SITE  AND  CEMETERY 


As  compared  with  our  series,  that  of  Langdon  shows  an  excess 
of  mesocephalic  crania  (33.33  per  cent  against  26.92  in  males)  and 
an  excess  of  brachycephalic  crania.  These  differences  are  even 
more  pronounced  in  the  case  of  the  females  (10.34  per  cent  of  meso¬ 
cephalic  crania  in  our  series  as  against  27.27  in  his  series).  That 
these  differences,  however,  are  due  to  the  shortness  of  the  series 
may  be  seen  from  the  results  of  including  in  Langdon’s  series  14 
other  crania  which  he  was  unable  to  sex.  The  following  table  shows 
the  fundamental  similarity : 


Cranial  Indices  of  Madisonville  Crania  (Male  and  Female) 


Dolicho. 

Meso. 

Brachy. 

Total 

Peabody  Museum:  number. 

.  2 

17 

62 

81 

“  “  per  cent 

.  2.47 

20.98 

76.54 

Langdon  series :  number .  .  . 

.  5 

15 

52 

72 

“  “  per  cent . . . 

.  6.94 

20.83 

72.22 

The  average  length  (diameter  antero -posterior 

maximum)  of  52 

male  crania  of  our  Madisonville  series  is  177.4  mm.  and  the 

range 

from  161-195  mm.  The  mean  length  of  29  female  crania  is  169  mm. 

and  the  range  from  161 

-179  mm. 

The  average  width  (diameter  lateral  maximum)  of  males  is  146.1 

mm.  and  the  range  133- 

160  mm.  In  the  females  the  average 

width 

is  141.7  mm.  and  the  range  126-150  mm. 

Length-Height 

Index 

Chamaecephalic 

Orthocephalic 

Hypsicephalic 

x-69.9 

70-74.9 

75-x 

Total 

Peabody  Museum  series: 

Males:  number . 

.  0 

10 

32 

42 

“  per  cent . 

.  0 

23.81 

76.19 

Females:  number . 

.  0 

6 

21 

27 

u  per  cent . 

.  0 

23.33 

77.77 

Both  sexes:  number . 

.  0 

16 

53 

69 

“  “  per  cent .... 

.  0 

23.19 

76.81 

Langdon  series: 

Both  sexes :  number . 

.  1 

2 

55 

58 

“  “  per  cent .... 

.  1.72 

3.44 

94.82 

As  the  series  given  above  includes  all  crania,  deformed  and  un¬ 
deformed,  it  is  subject  to  the  same  reservations  as  the  cranial  index 
discussed  above.  It  will  be  noted  in  the  analysis  of  the  above  table 
that  there  is  a  considerable  discrepancy  in  results  between  our 


Peabody  Museum  Papers 


Vol.  VIII,  Plate  25 


Madisonville  Site 
Male  cranium,  brachycephalic  type 
Norma  lateralis  Norma  facialis 

Norma  verticalis  Norma  occipitalis 


NEAR  MADISONVILLE,  OHIO 


91 


series  and  that  measured  by  Langdon  in  1879.  Our  series  shows  a 
range  of  the  index  from  70  to  83,  whereas  Langdon’s  series  ranges 
from  68  to  89.  Langdon’s  series  has  an  excess  of  hypsicephals 
amounting  to  about  18  per  cent.  This  difference  isd  istinctly  puz¬ 
zling  in  view  of  the  similarity  as  regards  the  seriation  of  the  cranial 
index  in  the  two  series.  Langdon  does  not  state  how  he  measured 
cranial  height.  He  may  have  taken  maximum  height  instead  of 
basion-bregma  height.  Langdon’s  series  comes  from  the  first  year’s 
excavations  in  the  cemetery,  whereas  the  majority  of  our  crania 
are  from  later  excavations  in  other  portions  of  the  cemetery,  but 
if  there  had  been  a  marked  difference  in  headform  we  should  have 
expected  it  to  show  in  the  cranial  index. 

Of  53  undeformed  Tennessee  Stone  Grave  crania  of  both  sexes 
measured  by  Fuller,  96.22  per  cent  were  hypsicephalic  and  3.77  per 
cent  orthocephalic. 

Breadth-Height  Index 

Tapeinocephalic  Metriocephalic  Akrocephalic 

x-91.9  92-97.9  98-x  Total 


Males:  number .  15  20  7  42 

“  percent .  35.71  47.62  16.66 

Females:  number .  10  15  2  27 

“  percent .  37.03  55.55  7.40 

Both  sexes :  number .  25  35  9  69 

“  “  per  cent .  36.23  50.72  13.04 


The  range  in  this  series  is  from  82  to  100  in  the  males  and  from 
86  to  100  in  the  females.  I  have  not  calculated  the  mean  as  it  is  of 
doubtful  significance  in  so  heterogeneous  a  group  of  crania. 
Comparison  with  the  Langdon  group  of  Madisonville  crania  is 
omitted  because  the  indices  are  not  given. 

From  the  above  table  it  will  be  seen  that  the  relative  height  of 
this  series  is  somewhat  small.  In  53  undeformed  Tennessee  crania 
of  both  sexes  Fuller  found  3.77  per  cent  tapeinocephalic,  28.30  per 
cent  metriocephalic,  and  67.92  per  cent  akrocephalic.  This  brings 
out  sharply  an  important  difference  in  these  neighboring  groups. 
The  basion-bregma  height  is  absolutely  lower  in  our  series  (average 
for  males  136.9  mm.,  females  131.3  mm.;  against  144  mm.  for 
males  and  139  mm.  for  females  in  the  Tennessee  series). 


92 


INDIAN  VILLAGE  SITE  AND  CEMETERY 


Cranial  Arcs. 

Cranial  Arcs  and  Circumferences 

Mean  Range  Number 


Male 

Female 

Male 

Female 

Male 

Female 

Horizontal  circumference: 

Madisonville . 

513 

493 

482-540 

462-515 

44 

26 

Tennessee  (Fuller) .... 

512 

481 

480-530 

462-495 

Nasion-opisthion  arc: 

Madisonville . 

361 

345 

334-379 

328-365 

41 

21 

Tennessee  (Fuller) .... 

359 

349 

331-400 

326-368 

Transverse  arc: 

Madisonville . 

316 

306 

300-350 

281-325 

42 

26 

Tennessee  (Fuller) .... 

310 

302 

293-348 

292-321 

In  the  table  above  the  cranial  circumferences  and  arcs  of  the 
Madisonville  series  are  compared  with  those  of  the  Tennessee 
Stone  Grave  series  measured  by  Fuller,  including  in  the  latter  case 
only  undeformed  crania.  In  the  case  of  the  horizontal  circumfer¬ 
ence  (taken  above  the  brow  ridges),  the  males  of  the  two  series 
show  very  similar  values,  while  the  Madisonville  females  surpass 
the  Tennessee  females  in  the  mean  value  of  the  circumference  by 
12  mpri.  The  mean  values  of  the  same  measurement  for  Arkansas 
and  Louisiana  series  studied  by  Dr.  Hrdlicka  are  as  follows :  Arkan¬ 
sas  males  500,  Louisiana  males  504;  Arkansas  females  485,  Louisi¬ 
ana  females  488. 

This  measurement  and  the  following  were  not  taken  by  Langdon 
on  his  Madisonville  series. 

In  the  case  of  the  nasion-opisthion  arc  the  mean  value  for  Madi¬ 
sonville  males  again  exceeds  slightly  that  of  the  Tennessee  males 
while  the  Madisonville  females  fall  below  the  Tennessee  females. 
The  corresponding  values  in  the  cases  of  the  Arkansas  and  Louisi¬ 
ana  series  are:  Arkansas  males  352,  Louisiana  males  355;  Arkan¬ 
sas  females  342,  Louisiana  females  348. 

The  excess  of  the  Madisonville  crania  over  the  Tennessee  crania 
in  the  transverse  arc  may  be  due  partially  to  the  fact  that  Fuller 
measured  to  the  supra-mastoid  crest,  while  the  writer  measured 
to  porion. 


NEAR  MADISONVILLE,  OHIO 


93 


Cranial  Capacity. 

Madisonville  series:  males . 

“  “  females . 

Tennessee  series  (Fuller) :  males .  .  . 

“  “  females.  . 

Arkansas  series  (Hrdlicka) :  males .  . 
“  “  “  females 


Mean 

Range  Number 

1435  cc. 

1265-1630  cc. 

38 

1287 

1150-1380 

21 

1410 

1175-1680 

? 

1276 

1110-1460 

? 

1455 

1310-1670 

19 

1255 

1140-1395 

14 

The  mean  capacities  of  the  series  compared  above  are  similar 
when  it  is  considered  that  the  range  is  great  and  the  series  are 
comparatively  small.  Langdon  found  the  mean  capacity  of  48 
Madisonville  crania  of  both  sexes  to  be  1338,  but  these  were 
measured  with  dried  peas  and  the  writer  ascertained  by  experimen¬ 
tation  that  this  method  yields  results  50  cc.  below  the  correct  capac¬ 
ity  of  a  bronze  control  skull.  If  we  then  add  50  cc.  to  Langdon’s 
mean  we  find  that  it  corresponds  closely  enough  with  the  mean  of 
both  sexes  in  our  series,  1382  cc. 

Thickness  of  Left  Parietal  Above  Temporo-parietal  Suture.  It 
is  very  difficult  to  obtain  accurate  results  in  this  measurement.  In 
the  crania  of  46  Madisonville  males  the  mean  value  of  this  measure¬ 
ment  was  5.8  mm.  The  range  in  the  males  was  from  3  mm.  to 
9  mm.  except  in  the  case  of  one  extraordinarily  thick  cranium 
which  yielded  a  measurement  of  14  mm.  on  the  left  parietal  just 
above  the  temporo-parietal  suture.  In  28  females  the  mean  thick¬ 
ness  at  this  point  was  5.78  mm.,  very  little  less  than  in  the  males. 
The  range  was  from  4  mm.  to  7  mm.  Dr.  Hrdlicka  found  the  aver¬ 
age  thickness  of  the  left  parietal  above  the  squamous  suture  in  13 
male  Arkansas  crania  5  mm.,  and  in  9  females  5.3  mm.  In  another 
Arkansas  group  of  22  male  crania  the  average  was  5  mm.  and  in 
13  female  crania  4.5.  In  the  Louisiana  group  of  17  males  and  18 
females  the  averages  were  5.5  mm.  and  4.85  mm.  respectively. 

Minimum  Frontal  Diameter. 

Mean  Range  Number 

Males  Females  Males  Females  Males  Females 


Madisonville . 

94.97 

92.71 

87-103 

85-103 

48 

28 

Tennessee  (Fuller) .  .  .  . 

93 

90 

83-108 

82-99 

? 

? 

Louisiana  (Hrdlicka) .  . 

96 

94 

85-102 

83-99 

17 

17 

Arkansas  (Hrdlicka). .  . 

96 

93 

87-102 

86-102 

13 

10 

Langdon  gives  as  the  mean  of  this  measurement  for  69  Madison¬ 
ville  crania  of  both  sexes  93,  with  a  range  of  84-107.  The  corre- 


94 


INDIAN  VILLAGE  SITE  AND  CEMETERY 


sponding  mean  in  our  series  is  94.1.  The  frontal  breadth  in  this 
series  is  therefore  rather  small,  though  it  exceeds  that  of  the  Ten¬ 
nessee  Stone  Grave  group. 

Facial  Index. 

Upper  Facial  Index 

Hypereuryene  Euryene  Mesene  Leptene 

x-44.9  45-49.8  50-54.9  55-x  Total 


Males:  number .  1  6  18  2  27 

“  per  cent .  3.7  22.22  66.66  7.4 

Females:  number .  0  6  6  1  13 

“  percent .  0  46.14  46.14  7.69 


While  the  majority  of  the  Madisonville  crania  fall  into  the 
mesene  group  as  regards  the  upper  facial  index,  it  will  be  observed 
there  also  exists  a  strong  tendency  toward  the  euryene  which  is 
naturally  accentuated  in  the  female  group.  Quite  markedly  dif¬ 
ferent  is  the  seriat.ion  of  the  upper  facial  index  in  the  undeformed 
crania  from  the  Tennessee  Stone  Graves  measured  by  Fuller.  Of 
97  males  he  found  34  per  cent  leptene,  56.7  per  cent  mesene,  and 
9.2  per  cent  euryene.  In  64  Tennessee  females  the  seriation  is  34.3 
per  cent  leptene,  54.6  per  cent  mesene,  and  10.9  per  cent  euryene. 
In  our  series  bizygomatic  diameter  in  28  males  averages  141  mm., 
and  in  14  females  131.3  mm.  Upper  facial  height  averages  72  mm. 
in  34  males  and  66.1  mm.  in  18  females. 

Total  Facial  Index 

Hypereuryprosopic  Euryprosopic  Mesoprosopic 

x-79.9  80-84.9  85-89.9  Total 


Males:  number .  1  12  5  18 

“  per  cent .  5.55  66.66  27.77 

Females:  number .  0  4  2  6 

percent .  0  66.66  33.33 


The  number  of  specimens  upon  which  the  measurements  neces¬ 
sary  for  the  calculation  of  the  total  facial  index  can  be  taken  is 
unfortunately  small.  There  is  a  strong  tendency  toward  eury- 
prosopism  in  this  group,  due  to  large  bizygomatic  diameters  and 
somewhat  small  total  facial  height  (averages  of  117.9  mm.  in  21 
males  and  110.2  mm.  in  7  females).  The  average  total  facial  index 
in  male  crania  from  Louisiana  and  Arkansas,  as  given  by  Dr. 
Hrdlicka,  is  between  85  and  86,  while  the  average  for  the  males  in 
our  series  is  about  83.  Fuller  found  the  average  total  facial  index 


NEAR  MADISONVILLE,  OHIO 


95 


in  92  male  crania  from  the  Tennessee  Stone  Graves  86,  and  in  59 
females  85.2.  Fuller  found  19.5  of  leptoprosopic  crania  in  his  males 
and  10  per  cent  in  his  females.  The  percentages  of  euryprosopic 
crania  in  the  Tennessee  group  were  25  for  males  and  44  for  females. 
It  therefore  appears  that  our  Madison ville  crania  are  sharply 
differentiated  from  the  Tennessee,  Arkansas,  and  Louisiana  groups 
in  respect  to  facial  proportions. 

Mean  Orbital  Index. 

Chamaeconch  Mesoconch  Hypsiconch 

x-82.8  83-88.9  89-x  Total 


Males:  number .  20  13  3  36 

“  percent .  55.55  36.11  8.33 

Females:  number .  12  7  1  20 

“  per  cent .  60.0  35.0  5.0 


The  orbital  index  is  extremely  variable.  The  mean  index  of  the 
two  orbits  ranges  in  the  males  from  67  to  101,  and  in  the  females 
from  71  to  90.  Often  the  measurements  of  the  two  orbits  differ 
considerably  and  in  such  cases  the  index  of  the  left  orbit  is  usually 
higher,  a  fact  previously  observed  by  Dr.  Hrdlicka  in  regard  to 
the  orbits  of  crania  of  Indians  from  Louisiana  and  Arkansas.  In 
the  Tennessee  Stone  Grave  series  of  95  males,  33.6  per  cent  were 
hypsiconch,  49.4  per  cent  mesoconch,  and  16.8  per  cent  chamae¬ 
conch.  Of  69  females  44.9  per  cent  were  hypsiconch,  47.8  per  cent 
mesoconch,  and  7.2  per  cent  chamaeconch.  Dr.  Hrdlicka  states 
that  the  majority  of  the  Arkansas  and  Louisiana  crania  measured 
by  him  were  megaseme  (hypsiconch).  It  may  be  observed  from  the 
tables  above  that  the  Madisonville  crania  are  prevailingly  chamae¬ 
conch  and  mesoconch.  This  is  to  be  expected  in  view  of  the  large 
breadth  and  inconsiderable  height  of  the  facial  skeleton. 

Nasal  Index. 


Leptorrhine 

Mesorrhine 

Platyrrhine 

Hyperplatyrrhine 

x-46.9 

47-50.9 

51-57.9 

58-x 

Total 

Males:  number 

7 

11 

15 

2 

35 

“  per  cent 

20.0 

31.42 

42.85 

5.71 

Females:  number 

1 

3 

10 

6 

20 

'  per  cent 

5.0 

15.0 

50.0 

30.0 

Almost  half  of  the  male  crania  and  four-fifths  of  the  female 
crania  are  platyrrhine.  This  is  to  be  expected  in  broad,  short-faced 
people,  and  the  sexual  difference  is  usual.  In  102  male  crania  from 
the  Tennessee  Stone  Graves,  Fuller  found  45  per  cent  platyrrhine, 


96 


INDIAN  VILLAGE  SITE  AND  CEMETERY 


37.3  per  cent  mesorrhine,  and  17.6  per  cent  leptorrhine.  In  73 
female  crania  of  the  same  group  the  seriation  is  63  per  cent  platyr- 
rhine,  26  per  cent  mesorrhine,  1 1  per  cent  leptorrhine.  The  Madi- 
sonville  crania  show  a  higher  percentage  of  platyrrhine  indices  than 
the  Tennessee  group,  especially  in  the  females.  The  mean  nasal 
index  in  males  is  51.6  and  in  females  55.9.  The  mean  of  the  Ten¬ 
nessee  males  is  50.1  and  of  the  Tennessee  females  51.5. 

Palatal  Index  (Maxillo-alveolar). 

Dolichuranic  Mesuranic  Brachyuranic 

x-109.9  110-114.9  115-x  Total 


Males:  number .  2  7  23  32 

“  percent .  6.25  21.87  71.87 

Females:  number .  2  4  13  19 

“  percent .  10.52  21.05  68.42 


The  palate  in  our  group  is  usually  brachyuranic  with  a  range  in 
males  of  106-129  and  a  mean  of  117.6.  The  range  in  the  female 
crania  is  108-136  and  the  mean  is  118.7.  The  means  in  the  Tennes¬ 
see  groups  are  122.6  for  males  and  120.9  for  females.  Of  84  Ten¬ 
nessee  males  89.2  per  cent  were  brachyuranic,  8.3  per  cent  mesur¬ 
anic  and  2.3  dolichuranic.  The  corresponding  figures  for  55  females 
are:  brachyuranic  78.1  per  cent,  mesuranic  7.2  per  cent,  dolichu¬ 
ranic  14.5  per  cent.  Dr.  Hrdlicka  gives  as  the  average  palatal  index 
for  Louisiana  males  116,  and  for  females  122,  but  the  number 
of  specimens  included  is  small.  On  the  whole  it  may  be  said  that 
the  degree  of  braehyurany  exhibited  by  the  Madisonville  group  is 
somewhat  less  than  would  be  expected  in  view  of  the  facial  pro¬ 
portions  and  that  it  is  evident  that  the  palates  in  this  group  have 
undergone  reduction,  which  often  has  the  effect  of  decreasing  the 
index. 

Alveolar  Index. 

Orthognathous  Mesognathous  Prognathous 

x-97.9  98-102.9  103-x  Total 


Males:  number .  19  9  0  28 

“  percent .  67.85  32.14  0 

Females :  number .  8  8  1  17 

“  per  cent .  47.05  47.05  5.88 


While  the  alveolar  index  has  been  discarded  by  Dr.  Hrdlicka 
and  other  authorities,  and  is  much  influenced  by  the  facial  length, 
it  is  still  of  interest  as  an  indication  of  prognathism.  According  to 
this  index  more  than  two-thirds  of  our  males  are  orthognathous 


Peabody  Museum  Papers 


Vol.  VIII,  Plate  26 


Madisonville  Site 
Female  cranium,  braehycephalic  type 
Norma  lateralis  Norma  facialis 

Norma  verticalis  Norma  occipitalis 


NEAR  MADISONVILLE,  OHIO 


97 


and  the  rest  mesognathous,  while  the  females  show  a  somewhat 
greater  tendency  toward  mesognathism.  In  the  Tennessee  group 
of  94  males  and  56  females  the  distribution  of  index  classes  is  as 
follows:  orthognathous,  males  70.2  per  cent,  females  48.2  per  cent; 
mesognathous,  males  26.5  per  cent,  females  41  per  cent;  progna¬ 
thous,  males  3.2  per  cent,  females  10.7  per  cent.  This  is  quite 
similar  to  the  Madison ville  seriation,  but  the  Tennessee  group  in¬ 
cludes  a  few  more  prognathous  skulls. 

Angles  Relating  to  Prognathism.  The  facial  angle  according  to 
Rivet  and  Hrdlicka,  included  between  nasion,  alveon,  and  basion, 
and  measured  according  to  the  direct  or  graphic  method,  gives  an 
average  of  73.1°  in  28  males  and  72.1°  in  17  females.  This  puts 
both  sexes  in  the  orthognathous  group  according  to  Rivet’s  division 
of  the  index  which  markes  the  lower  limit  of  that  group  at  73.  The 
range  in  the  males  was  from  68°  to  79°  and  in  the  females  from 
67.5°  to  80°.  Dr.  Hrdlicka  found  an  average  of  73°  in  Munsee  or 
Lenape  males  and  74°  in  the  females  of  that  group.  The  following 
is  the  seriation  of  the  index. 

Naso-alveolo-basilar  Angle 

Prognathous  Mesognathous  Orthognathous 

x-59.9  70-72.9  73-x  Total 


Males:  number .  4  6  18  28 

“  percent .  14.28  21.42  64.28 

Females:  number .  1  9  7  17 

per  cent .  5.88  52.94  41.17 


If  we  compare  the  angle  with  the  results  of  the  alveolar  index 
given  above  we  find  that  the  classification  according  to  the  angle 
removes  4  male  crania  from  the  mesognathous  to  the  prognathous 
class  and  one  orthognathous  cranium  into  the  mesognathous  class. 
In  the  case  of  the  females  it  changes  one  cranium  from  orthogna¬ 
thous  to  mesognathous.  This  is  a  better  indication  of  prognathism 
than  the  alveolar  index. 

Foramen  Magnum.  The  mean  diameter  of  the  foramen  magnum 
in  36  male  Madisonville  crania  is  32.8  mm.  and  in  22  female 
crania  31.8  mm.  This  is  decidedly  below  the  average  for  Indian 
males  as  recorded  by  Dr.  Hrdlicka,  but  in  the  case  of  the  females 
there  is  a  substantial  agreement.  The  following  figures  are  of 
interest  by  way  of  comparison:  Munsee,  7  males,  35  mm.,  8  fe¬ 
males,  32  mm. ;  Louisiana,  10  males,  34.5  mm.,  14  females,  31.8  mm. ; 


98 


INDIAN  VILLAGE  SITE  AND  CEMETERY 


Arkansas,  22  males,  33  mm.,  16  females,  31.4  mm.  It  remains  to  be 
seen  whether  this  ratio  has  any  particular  significance  in  relation 
to  stature  or  other  bodily  characters. 

Lower  Jaw. 

Males  Females 


Number  of 
specimens 

Average 

Number  of 
specimens 

Average 

Height  at  symphysis . 

. .  25 

36.5 

9 

32.4 

Minimum  breadth  of  ramus. . 

.  .  30 

35.5 

9 

34.2 

Bicondylar  width . 

.  .  22 

129.0 

7 

122.7 

Condylo-symphysial  length .  . 

.  .  24 

104.6 

7 

104.5 

Bigonial  diameter . 

.  .  24 

103.4 

8 

99.1 

Mean  angle . 

.  .  25 

125.4 

7 

126.4 

The  dimensions  of  the  lower  jaws  in  this  series  are  moderate. 
The  mandibles  are  especially  broad  in  proportion  to  their  length. 
The  female  jaws  seem  relatively  longer  than  the  male  but  this  is 
possibly  due  to  the  shortness  of  the  female  series.  The  mean  angle 
of  the  ascending  rami  is  unusually  high  in  the  male  group,  but 
otherwise  the  measurements  do  not  diverge  markedly  from  those 
observed  in  the  case  of  other  Indian  crania. 

Frontal  Region. 

Height 


Very  low 

Low 

Medium 

High 

Very  high 

Total 

Males:  number. . .  . 

2 

18 

30 

2 

i 

53 

“  per  cent. . .  . 

3.75 

34.0 

56.6 

3.75 

1.9 

Females:  number.  . 

1 

12 

12 

6 

0 

31 

“  per  cent. . 

3.2 

38.7 

38.7 

19.3 

0 

Doubtful:  number. 

0 

1 

2 

0 

0 

3 

Breadth 

Narrow 

Medium 

Broad 

Very  broad 

Total 

Males:  number.  .  .  . 

13 

27 

10 

3 

53 

“  per  cent .  .  .  . 

.  24.5 

51.0 

18.9 

5.6 

Females:  number.  . 

6 

17 

4 

4 

31 

per  cent .  . 

.  19.3 

54.9 

12.9 

12.9 

Doubtful:  number. 

0 

1 

2 

0 

3 

Slope 

Bulging 

Submedium 

Medium 

Receding 

Very  receding  Total 

Males:  number .... 

2 

4 

37 

7 

3 

53 

“  per  cent .... 

3.7 

7.5 

70.0 

13.0 

5.6 

Females:  number.  . 

7 

0 

20 

4 

0 

31 

“  per  cent. . 

22.6 

0 

64.5 

12.9 

0 

Doubtful:  number. 

0 

0 

3 

0 

0 

3 

NEAR  MADISONVILLE,  OHIO 


99 


An  analysis  of  the  above  tabulations  of  observed  characters  in 
the  frontal  region  of  the  crania  shows  that  the  majority  of  males 
(56.6  per  cent)  had  brows  of  medium  height,  while  a  considerable 
proportion  of  the  remainder  (34  per  cent)  had  low  foreheads. 
Only  a  few  crania  exhibited  high  frontals,  or  very  low  frontals. 
In  comparison  with  the  males  the  females  show  a  lesser  proportion 
of  frontals  of  medium  height  and  a  decided  increase  in  the  num¬ 
bers  of  skulls  with  high  frontals  (19.3  per  cent). 

In  the  matter  of  frontal  breadth,  as  observed  in  relation  to 
height  and  slope,  about  one  half  of  the  male  skulls  are  medium 
and  the  other  half  almost  equally  divided  between  narrow  and 
broad.  The  females  show  a  similar  distribution,  except  for  a 
somewhat  larger  proportion  of  relatively  very  broad  frontals. 

In  the  large  majority  of  the  male  skulls  the  slope  of  the  frontal  bone 
is  medium  (70  per  cent).  The  remainder  show  more  with  receding 
frontals  than  with  steep  or  bulging  frontals.  The  female  crania 
differ  from  the  males  in  the  high  percentage  of  bulging  frontals 


(22.6  per  cent).  This  is,  of  course, 

a  common  sex 

difference. 

Sagittal  Region. 

Breadth 

Submedium 

Medium 

Broad 

Very  broad 

Total 

Males:  number . 

.  3 

26 

15 

9 

53 

“  per  cent . 

.  5.6 

49.0 

28.5 

17.3 

Females:  number.  .  . 

.  2 

15 

11 

3 

31 

“  per  cent .  .  . 

.  6.5 

48.4 

35.5 

9.6 

Doubtful :  number .  .  . 

.  0 

2 

1 

0 

3 

Elevation 

Absent  Submedium 

Medium 

Marked 

Very  marked 

Total 

Males:  number  .... 

10  19 

18 

4 

2 

53 

“  per  cent . 

18.9  36.0 

34.0 

7.5 

5.6 

Females:  number.  .  . 

7  14 

9 

1 

0 

31 

“  per  cent. .  . 

22.6  45.1 

29.0 

3.2 

0 

Doubtful :  number .  . 

1  0 

2 

0 

0 

3 

The  tables  above  clearly  show  a 

predominance 

of  medium  and 

broad  sagittal  regions  both  in  males  and  in  females,  with  a  some¬ 
what  larger  proportion  of  the  broad  categories  in  the  latter  sex. 
A  large  majority  of  the  male  crania  show  a  varying  development 
of  the  sagittal  elevation,  but  it  is  very  pronounced  in  a  few  cases 
only.  Naturally  the  females  show  a  lesser  development  of  this 
character. 


100 


INDIAN  VILLAGE  SITE  AND  CEMETERY 


In  9  male  crania,  or  17  per  cent,  a  slight  post-coronoid  depression 
was  observed.  This  character  also  was  present  in  a  slight  degree 
in  13  female  crania,  and  markedly  in  one  female  cranium,  —  a 
total  of  45.2  per  cent.  This  again  is  a  sexual  difference  of  common 
observation. 

Temporal  Region. 

Flat  or  depressed  Medium  Bulging  Total 


Males:  number .  19  18  16  53 

“  per  cent .  36.0  34.0  30.0 

Females:  number .  11  10  10  31 

“  per  cent .  35.5  32.2  32.2 

Doubtful :  number .  1  1  1  3 


The  table  above  shows  an  almost  equal  distribution  of  flat, 
medium,  and  bulging  temporal  regions  in  both  sexes.  A  pronounced 
depression  of  the  wing  of  the  sphenoid  is  very  common  in  this 
series. 

Occipital  Region. 


Flat  or 

Medium 

Occipital 

steep 

convex 

Protuberant 

torus 

Total 

Males:  number. .  .  . 

38 

14 

1 

16 

53 

“  per  cent .  .  . 

71.7 

26.4 

1.9 

30.0 

Females:  number. . 

21 

8 

2 

1 

31 

“  per  cent. . 

67.7 

25.8 

6.5 

3.2 

Doubtful:  number. 

2 

1 

0 

1 

3 

The  high  percentage  of  flat  occipital  regions  in  this  series,  as 
shown  in  the  table  above,  is  partially  due  to  artificial  occipital 
deformation,  but  in  a  greater  degree  to  the  natural  shape  of  the 
skull.  The  percentage  of  male  crania  exhibiting  flat  occipital 
regions  is  71.7,  while  the  percentage  of  all  male  crania  showing 
occipital  deformation  is  73.5.  On  the  other  hand  67.7  per  cent  of 
female  crania  have  flat  occiputs,  whereas  82.7  per  cent  show 
artificial  deformation. 

A  slight  occipital  torus  was  observed  in  11  male  skulls,  an  oc¬ 
cipital  torus  of  medium  development  in  3  skulls,  and  of  pro¬ 
nounced  development  in  2  skulls,  making  a  total  of  30  per  cent 
of  the  male  crania  exhibiting  this  feature.  One  female  cranium 
and  one  cranium  of  doubtful  sex  also  show  a  slight  development  of 
this  feature. 


NEAR  MADISONVILLE,  OHIO 


101 


Sutures. 


Occlusion  of  Coronal,  Sagittal, 

and  Lambdoid 

All  open 

Beginning 
in  all 

Beginning 
in  sagittal 

Beginning 
in  coronal 

Males:  number .  .  . 

. .  26 

3 

4 

0 

“  per  cent. .  . 

. .  49.05 

Females:  number.  . 

.  .  25 

1 

0 

2 

“  per  cent. 

. .  80.06 

Beginning  in 
sagittal  and 
lambdoid 

Beginning  in 
sagittal  and 
coronal 

Beginning  at 
pterion 

Advanced  in 
sagittal, others 
open  or  beginning 

Males:  number  .  .  . 

.  .  .  3 

2 

0 

8 

Females:  number.  . 

.  .  .  0 

1 

1 

0 

Advanced  in 
sagittal,  and  in 
coronal, 
lambdoid  open 

Advanced  in 
sagittal,  and  in 
lambdoid, 
coronal  open 

Advanced  in 
sagittal,  coronal, 
and  lambdoid  Total 

Males:  number .  .  . 

.  2 

2 

3 

53 

Females:  number.  . 

.  1 

0 

0 

31 

As  may  be  seen  from  the  above  tabulations,  about  half  of  the 
male  crania  in  our  series  and  four-fifths  of  the  female  crania  showed 
no  external  traces  of  obliteration  of  the  sutures.  Contrary  to  what 
has  usually  been  observed  in  the  case  of  American  crania,  points  of 
obliteration  appear  first  in  the  sagittal  suture  and  obliteration  pro¬ 
ceeds  more  rapidly  in  this  suture.  Hrdlicka  observed  in  his  Arkan¬ 
sas  and  Louisiana  series  that  synostosis  began  dorsally  in  the 
coronal  suture,  and  Fuller  makes  a  similar  statement  in  regard 
to  his  Tennessee  Stone  Grave  series.  The  difference  may  be  due, 
on  the  one  hand,  to  the  less  pronounced  occipital  deformation 
of  the  Madisonville  series,  or,  on  the  other,  to  an  error  conse¬ 
quent  upon  the  small  number  of  crania.  It  is  of  some  interest  to 
note  that  in  two  of  the  female  crania  synostosis  was  recorded  to 
have  begun  in  the  coronal  and  in  no  case  in  the  sagittal,  while  of 
the  males  no  example  of  priority  of  coronal  obliteration  was 
observed. 

The  form  of  pterion  found  in  this  series  is  almost  invariably  the 
broad  H  type,  but  one  male  cranium  and  one  female  cranium  ex¬ 
hibited  the  K  or  X  type. 


102 


INDIAN  VILLAGE  SITE  AND  CEMETERY 


Serration 

Simple  Medium  Complex  ?  Total 


Males:  number .  33  18  1  1  53 

“  percent .  62.23  33.94  1.88  1.88 

Females:  number .  21  10  0  0  31 

“  percent .  67.72  32.25  0  0 

Doubtful:  number .  1  2  0  0  3 


As  indicated  above,  the  conformation  of  the  sutures  in  this  series 
of  crania  is  simple  in  about  two-thirds  of  the  cases  and  of  medium 
complexity  in  the  remainder. 


Wormian  Bones 

Temporo-  Temporo- 

?  None  Lambdoid  parietal  occipital  Others  Total 

Males:  number .  4  11  32  4  13  9  53 

“  per  cent .  7.54  20.75  60.37  7.54  24.52  16.98  71.69 

Females:  ntlmber ..  .  0  13  15  0  7  2  31 

percent...  0  41.93  48.38  0  22.58  6.45  58.06 

Doubtful:  number .  .  0  1  2  0  0  0  3 


The  table  above  shows  that  sutural  bones  occur  in  71.69  per  cent 
of  the  male  crania  and  in  58.06  per  cent  of  the  female  crania. 
They  are  found  oftenest  in  the  lambdoid  suture  and  next  in  the 
temporo-parietal.  Nine  epipteric  bones  were  observed  in  the  male 
crania,  one  in  the  coronal  suture,  one  in  the  sagittal  suture,  and 
one  os  apicuin  or  triangular  Wormian  bone  at  lambda.  Two  of  the 
male  crania  showed  traces  of  the  transverse  occipital  suture,  but 
it  was  not  complete  in  either  case.  There  were  two  epipteric  bones 
among  the  crania  of  females  and  one  complete  transverse  occipital 
suture.  The  so-called  Inca  bone,  then,  occurs  in  but  one  of  the  87 
crania  of  our  collection,  whereas  Fuller  found  it  in  about  16  per 
cent  of  his  Tennessee  Stone  Grave  series. 

Parietal  Foramina. 


Number 

None  One  Two  Total 

Males:  number . .  24  16  13  53 

“  percent .  45.26  30.17  24.51 

Females:  number .  18  7  6  31 

per  cent .  58.05  22.57  19.35 


Fuller  found  parietal  foramina  absent  in  about  40  per  cent  of 
his  Tennessee  Stone  Grave  crania.  This  corresponds  fairly  closely 
with  the  results  shown  in  the  above  table. 


Peabody  Museum  Papebs 


Yol.  VIII,  Plate  27 


Madisonville  Site 
Male  cranium,  subdolichocephalic  type 
Norma  lateralis  Norma  facialis 

Norma  verticaiis  Norma  occipitalis 


NEAR  MADISONVILLE,  OHIO 


103 


Retro-mastoid  Foramina.  These  are  extremely  variable  in  num¬ 
ber,  size,  and  position. 

Mastoids. 

Size 


Submedium 


Males:  number .  22 

“  percent .  41.49 

Females:  number .  7 

“  per  cent .  23.33 


Medium 

Large 

Very  large 

Total 

24 

6 

1 

53 

45.26 

11.31 

1.88 

16 

7 

0 

30 

53.33 

23.33 

0 

The  mastoid  processes  are  usually  medium  or  somewhat  below 
medium  in  size  in  our  Madisonville  crania  as  compared  with  aver¬ 
age  Europeans.  Fuller  found  55  per  cent  of  his  Tennessee  Stone 
Grave  males  with  mastoids  of  medium  size,  and  the  remainder 
equally  divided  between  sub-medium  and  large.  On  the  whole  our 
series  falls  somewhat  below  the  Tennessee  group  in  the  develop¬ 
ment  of  this  process.  Hrdlicka  observed  in  his  examination  of 
crania  from  Arkansas  and  Louisiana  that,  while  the  mastoid  proc¬ 
esses  often  showed  only  a  moderate  development  in  the  males,  in 
females  they  frequently  exceeded  the  average  determined  in  the 
same  sex  in  Whites  and  in  Indians  from  other  regions.  He  related 
this  development  in  females  to  the  growth  of  the  sternocleido¬ 
mastoid  muscles  favored  by  the  habitual  carrying  by  these  women 
of  heavy  jars  and  other  burdens.  From  the  table  above  a  similar 
superiority  of  mastoid  development  on  the  part  of  females  may  be 
observed  in  our  series,  and  doubtless  for  the  same  reason. 

Facial  Portion. 

SlJPRA-ORBITAL  RlDGES 


Absent 

Submedium 

Medium 

Large 

Very  large 

Total 

Males:  number.  . 

4 

13 

25 

7 

4 

53 

“  per  cent. . 

7.54 

24.51 

47.14 

13.16 

7.54 

Females:  number 

11 

13 

7 

0 

0 

31 

1  per  cent 

35.48 

41.93 

22.58 

0 

0 

It  is  of  interest  to  compare  with  the  above  table  the  results 
obtained  by  Fuller  in  the  observation  of  the  same  character  on  148 
male  crania  and  72  female  crania  of  Tennessee  Indians.  In  the 
males  he  found  no  case  in  which  the  brow  ridges  were  undeveloped, 
29.1  per  cent  were  of  submedium  development,  44.6  per  cent  me¬ 
dium  and  26.3  per  cent  above  medium.  This  shows  a  distribution 
of  the  grades  of  percentages  in  various  development  closely  sim- 


104 


INDIAN  VILLAGE  SITE  AND  CEMETERY 


ilar  to  that  of  our  series,  but  the  Madisonville  crania,  on  the  whole, 
show  more  instances  of  the  lesser  degrees  of  development.  (Ten¬ 
nessee  females:  absent  31.9  per  cent,  submedium  33.3  per  cent, 
medium  29.1  per  cent,  large  5.5  per  cent.) 

The  types  of  supra-orbital  ridges  most  commonly  found  in  this 
series  are:  (a)  in  which  the  ridges  are  over  the  median  portions  of 
the  orbits  and  limited  laterally,  ( b )  in  which  the  lateral  portions 
of  the  superior  orbital  margins  are  thickened  to  form  ridgeS  which 
are  separated  from  the  median  ridges,  (c)  in  which  the  lateral  and 
median  ridges  are  continuous  forming  a  torus  from  one  external 
angular  process  to  the  other.  Type  a  is  by  far  the  most  common 
in  our  series.  Type  b  is  frequently  found  and  type  c  only  occasion¬ 
ally. 

The  orbits  in  this  series  present  no  unusual  features.  There  is 
considerable  variation  in  the  dimensions  of  right  and  left  orbits  in 
the  same  individual,  as  remarked  above.  Practically  all  of  the 
orbits  are  of  the  oblong  shape  with  rounded  corners.  In  case  of 
the  male  crania  57.5  per  cent  of  the  orbits  have  their  long  axes 
horizontal  and  42.5  per  cent  have  long  axes  inclined  downward  and 
outward.  In  the  female  crania  these  figures  are  54.54  per  cent  and 
45.54  per  cent  respectively. 

Infra-orbital  Suture 

Absent  Right  Left  Both  Total 


Males:  number .  21  2  3  6  32 

“  percent .  65.62  6.25  9.37  18.75 

Females:  number .  13  2  3  3  21 

“  percent .  61.88  4.76  14.28  14.28 


In  the  above  tabulation  of  the  occurrence  of  the  infra-orbital 
suture  the  writer  has  not  distinguished  between  cases  in  which  the 
suture  was  present,  only  on  the  facial  aspect  and  cases  in  which  it 
was  complete  on  both  facial  and  orbital  aspects.  ^Tiere  found  it 
was  usually  complete.  Fuller  records  the  complete  absence  of  this 
feature  in  (34  per  cent  of  his  male  crania  from  the  Tennessee  Stone 
Graves,  which  agrees  closely  enough  with  our  figures.  But  in 
Tennessee  females  he  finds  the  suture  absent  in  only  30  per  cent 
of  cases  as  against  61.88  per  cent  in  our  series. 

Nasion  Depression.  The  nasion  depression,  which  is  due  in 
large  part  to  the  protuberance  of  glabella,  is  very  slight  or  entirely 


NEAR  MADISONYILLE,  OHIO 


105 


absent  in  most  of  the  male  skulls  in  our  Madisonville  series,  and 
does  not  occur  at  all  in  the  crania  of  females.  The  type  of  depressed 
nasion  that  is  often  seen  in  Australian  skulls  (i.e.  where  the  fronto¬ 
nasal  suture  is  not  only  depressed  below  the  level  of  the  glabella 
eminence,  but  is  sunken  deep  below  the  level  of  ophryon)  does  not 
occur  at  all  in  this  series. 


Nasal  Bridge 

Breadth  Height 


Submedium 

Medium 

Broad 

? 

Low  Medium 

High 

?  Total 

Males:  number  14 

24 

5 

7 

ii 

28 

4 

7 

50 

“  per  cent  28.0 

48.0 

10.0 

14.0 

22.0 

56.0 

8.0 

14.0 

Females:  number  7 

10 

5 

9 

11 

10 

1 

9 

31 

“  per  cent  22.57 

32.25 

16.12 

29.03 

35.48 

32.25 

3.22 

29.03 

Shape  of  Nasal  Bridge 


Males:  number.  .  . . 

“  per  cent. .  . . 
Females:  number 1 . 


?  Straight 
22  4 

48.84  8.88 

21  2 


Convex 

Concave 

Concavo-convex 

Total 

8 

0 

11 

55 

17.76 

0 

24.42 

1 

0 

8 

.  31 

From  the  analysis  of  the  above  tables  it  will  be  observed  that 
the  nasal  bridge  in  males  of  our  series  is  prevailingly  of  medium 
breadth,  often  of  submedium  breadth,  and  sometimes  broad. 
Usually  it  is  of  medium  height  (56.0  per  cent),  and  often  low  (22.0 
per  cent).  The  nasal  bridge  in  the  females  tends  to  be  lower  and 
broader,  a  generally  observed  sex  difference.  Convex  and  con¬ 
cavo-convex  nasal  bridges  are  the  prevailing  forms. 

Nasal  Spine 


? 

Submedium 

Medium 

Pronounced  Total 

Males:  number.  . .  . 

1 

20 

14 

0 

35 

“  per  cent  . .  . 

2.85 

57.14 

39.99 

0 

Females:  number .  . 

0 

10 

9 

0 

19 

per  cent. . 

0 

52.63 

47.34 

0 

Lower  Borders  of 

Nasal  Aperture 

Indistinct 

Medium 

Sharp 

Total 

Males:  number .  .  .  . 

.  20 

5 

13 

38 

“  per  cent .  .  . 

.  52.63 

13.15 

34.21 

Females:  number.  . 

.  8 

7 

5 

20 

per  cent . 

.  40.0 

35.0 

25.0 

1  Percentages  omitted  because  of  inadequate  series. 


106 


INDIAN  VILLAGE  SITE  AND  CEMETERY 


Nasal  Grooves 


Absent 

Submedium 

Medium 

Pronounced 

Total 

Males:  number.  . 

.  26 

7 

2 

3 

38 

“  per  cent  . 

.  68.38 

18.31 

5.26 

7.89 

Females:  number 

.  16 

3 

1 

0 

20 

“  per  cent 

.  80.0 

15.0 

5.0 

0 

The  above  tables  show  a  prevailingly  poor  development  of  the 
nasal  spine  and  indistinct  lower  borders  of  the  nasal  aperture  as 
characteristics  of  both  sexes  in  our  series.  This  is  quite  the  reverse 
of  what  Fuller  states  to  be  true  of  the  Tennessee  Stone  Grave 
series  of  which  he  says  that  the  lower  borders  are  “  almost  uni¬ 
versally  sharp  ”  and  the  nasal  spines  usually  well  developed  The 
observations  on  our  series,  however,  accord  with  the  results  of 
Dr.  Hrdlicka’s  findings  on  Arkansas  and  Louisiana  skulls  in  re¬ 
spect  to  these  characters. 

Sub-orbital  Fossae 

Absent  Submedium  Medium  Pronounced  Total 


Males:  number .  0  9  14  16  *39 

“  percent .  0  23.07  35.89  41.02 

Females:  number .  1  2  10  9  22 

per  cent .  4.54  9.08  45.45  40.86 

Doubtful:  number .  0  1  1  1  3 


The  depth  of  the  sub-orbital  fossae  depends  very  largely  upon 
age,  to  some  extent  upon  sex,  and  in  an  indeterminate  degree  upon 
racial  and  individual  variation.  The  distribution  in  the  series 
under  consideration,  as  shown  above,  seems  to  have  no  unusual 
significance. 

Malars 


Submedium 

Medium 

Large 

Very  large 

Total 

Males:  number . 

16 

17 

2 

40 

“  per  cent .  .  .  . 

.  .  12.5 

40.0 

42.5 

5.0 

Females:  number. .  . 

11 

8 

0 

0 

19 

per  cent .  . 

57.86 

42.08 

0 

0 

Doubtful:  number. . 

1 

0 

1 

0 

2 

Zygomae 

Submedium 

Medium 

Large 

Very  large 

Total 

Males :  number .... 

4 

11 

18 

5 

38 

“  per  cent .  . . . 

.  .  10.52 

28.94 

47.35 

13.15 

Females:  number. .  . 

5 

10 

1 

0 

16 

per  cent.  . 

.  .  31.25 

62.50 

6.25 

0 

Doubtful :  number. . 

1 

0 

1 

0 

2 

NEAR  MADISONVILLE,  OHIO 


107 


As  shown  in  the  table,  the  malars  are  largfe  in  nearly  half  of  the 
male  crania,  but  not  “  very  large,”  except  in  two  cases.  Rugged 
and  massive  malar  bones  are  not  nearly  as  common  in  the  group 
from  this  cemetery  as  they  are,  for  example,  in  crania  from  the 
Tennessee  Stone  Graves.  Large  malars  are  not  found  in  the  few 
female  skulls  in  the  series  in  which  observations  could  be  made  on 
the  facial  skeleton.  The  marginal  process  on  the  malar  bone, 
which  Langdon  found  well  developed  in  76.4  per  cent  of  68  Madi- 
sonville  crania,  is  also  of  common  occurrence  in  our  series. 

The  zygomatic  arches  are  naturally  stronger  and  more  rugged 
in  males  than  in  females. 


Alveolae  Prognathism 
Absent  Submedium 


Males:  number ... .  1  16 

“  per  cent. . . .  2.94  47.04 

Females:  number.  .  1  7 

per  cent. .  5.0  35.0 

Doubtful :  number  0  1 


Medium 

Very- 

Pronounced  pronounced 

Total 

12 

5 

0 

34 

35.28 

14.70 

0 

7 

4 

1 

20 

35.0 

20.0 

5.0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

The  above  tabulation  shows  a  somewhat  greater  development  of 
alveolar  prognathism  among  female  crania  than  among  the  male. 
Langdon  remarks  that  prognathism  “  is  a  generally  well-marked, 
though  not  constant  feature  of  these  crania.”1  Fuller,  in  his  ex¬ 
amination  of  Tennessee  Stone  Grace  crania  found  a  more  marked 
tendency  to  alveolar  prognathism  among  females  than  among 
males. 

Teeth.  As  in  most  series  of  crania  from  old  graves,  so  many  teeth 
have  been  lost  post-mortem  in  the  present  group  that  observations 
on  the  dentition  are  very  unsatisfactory. 


Dentition 

Complete  Incomplete  Total 

Sub- 

None  medium 

Wear 

Medium  Pronounced  Total 

Males:  number  . 

38 

3 

41 

i 

27 

9 

5 

42 

“  per  cent  . 

92.68 

7.32 

2.38 

64.26 

21.42 

11.90 

Females:  number 

20 

6 

26 

2 

11 

6 

1 

20 

per  cent 

76.92 

23.07 

10.0 

55.0 

30.0 

5.0 

Doubtful:  number 

2 

1 

3 

1 

1 

0 

1 

3 

The  first  division  of  the  table  above  shows  that  of  41  male 
crania  on  which  observations  concerning  the  dentition  could  be 


1  Op.  cit.,  p.  241. 


108 


INDIAN  VILLAGE  SITE  AND  CEMETERY 


made,  38  or  92.68  per  cent  showed  completed  dentitions.  By  this 
it  is  meant  that  all  of  the  permanent  teeth  had  erupted. 

In  the  female  series,  20  of  a  total  of  26  crania  showed  completed 
dentitions.  In  every  instance  in  the  crania  of  both  sexes  in  which 
the  dentition  was  incomplete,  one  or  more  of  the  third  molars  had 
not  erupted.  Most  of  these,  according  to  the  age  estimates,  were 
young  adults  between  the  ages  of  twenty  and  thirty  years,  but 
several  were  obviously  middle  aged.  There  is  clearly  shown  here  a 
very  marked  tendency  toward  the  suppression  of  third  molars  in 
the  females  (amounting  to  23  per  cent  of  the  cases  observed), 
while  in  a  lesser  degree  (7.3  per  cent)  the  same  is  true  of  the  males. 
The  doubtful  skull  in  which  the  dentition  was  incomplete  was  that 
of  an  adolescent.  In  this  connection  it  is  interesting  to  note  that 
Fuller  found  the  suppression  of  one  or  more  third  molars  in  24  of 
the  185  Tennessee  Stone  Grave  crania  he  examined— 13.9  per  cent 
of  male  crania,  and  11.4  per  cent  of  female  crania.  This  percentage 
doubtless  would  have  been  higher  if  it  had  been  possible  to  estimate 
it  on  the  basis  of  the  number  of  crania  in  which  dental  observa¬ 
tions  were  possible,  instead  of  the  entire  number  studied.  But  the 
author  did  not  give  the  former  figures. 

Analysis  of  the  table  showing  the  degree  of  wear  of  the  teeth  in¬ 
dicates  that  the  majority  of  the  individuals  represented  were 
young  adults  and  that  the  females  included  fewer  aged  persons 
than  the  males. 


Teeth  Lost  in  Life 

Few  Many  All  Total  crania 

Males:  number .  1  8  2  41 

“  per  cent .  2.44  19.51  4.88 

Females:  number .  1  5  1  20 

“  per  cent .  5.0  25.0  5.0 

Quality 

Very  poor  Submedium  Medium  Good  Total 

Males:  number .  3  5  12  18  38 

“  percent .  7.89  13.15  31.57  47.35 

Females:  number .  3  4  8  4  19 

“  percent _  15.78  21.04  42.08  21.04 

Doubtful :  number. ...  1  0  0  2  3 


Peabody  Museum  Papers 


Vol.  VIII,  Plate  28 


Madisonvillf,  Site 

Female  cranium,  subbrachycephalic  type 
Norma  lateralis  Norma  facialis 

Norma  verticalis  Norma  occipitalis 


no 


INDIAN  VILLAGE  SITE  AND  CEMETERY 


Shovel-shaped  incisors,  identified  by  Hrdlicka  as  a  characteristic 
of  Indian  teeth,  were  observed  in  12  of  the  13  male  crania  in  which 
examination  was  possible,  and  in  all  of  the  6  female  crania. 

Palate. 

Shape 


U-shaped 

Parabolic 

Hyperbolic 

Elliptical 

Total 

Males:  number. .  . 

7 

20 

2 

4 

33 

“  per  cent .  . 

21.21 

60.60 

6.06 

12.12 

Females:  number 

3 

14 

2 

1 

20 

“  per  cent 

15.0 

70.0 

10.0 

5.0 

The  distribution  of  palate  form  is  shown  in  the  table  above.  It 
agrees  very  closely  with  Fuller’s  figures  for  Tennessee  Stone  Grave 
crania,  in  which  of  70  observations  on  male  crania,  65.71  per  cent 
were  parabolic  and  hyperbolic,  as  against  66.66  per  cent  in  our 
series;  22.85  per  cent  of  Tennessee  Stone  Grave  males  had  U- 
shaped  palates,  and  21.21  per  cent  of  Madisonville  males;  11.42 
per  cent  of  Tennessee  crania  and  12.12  per  cent  of  Madisonville 
crania  had  elliptical  palates.  In  the  case  of  females  the  comparison 
shows  almost  as  striking  a  similarity,  for  of  45  female  crania 
examined  in  the  Tennessee  Stone  Grave  series,  68.88  per  cent  were 
parabolic  and  hyperbolic,  15.55  U-shaped,  and  15.55  elliptical. 

The  roof  of  the  palate  was  observed  to  be  high  in  9  of  the  male 
crania  of  our  series,  or  27.27  per  cent,  as  against  26.37  per  cent  of 
the  Tennessee  Stone  Grave  series  observed  by  Fuller.  In  female 
crania  from  Madisonville,  2  of  20,  or  10  per  cent,  had  high  roofs, 
as  against  22.38  per  cent  of  the  Tennessee  series. 

A  slight  development  of  the  palatine  torus  occurred  in  4  male 
crania  of  our  series  or  12.12  per  cent,  and  in  4  of  the  female  crania 
or  20  per  cent.  Fuller  estimated  the  occurrence  of  the  palatine 
torus  in  Tennessee  Stone  Grave  males  at  15  per  cent,  and  in 
females  at  10  per  cent.  There  is  little  doubt  that  the  shortness  of 
our  female  series  has  fortuitously  increased  beyond  normal  the 
occurrence  of  this  feature. 

Skull  Base. 

Styloids 


Absent 

Submedium 

Medium 

Large 

Very  large 

Total 

Males:  number.  . . 

1 

14 

19 

•  13 

3 

50 

“  per  cent. . . 

2.0 

28.0 

38.0 

26.0 

6.0 

Females :  number . 

2 

19 

5 

3 

0 

29 

“  per  cent 

6.9 

65.3 

17.2 

10.3 

0 

NEAR  MADISONVILLE,  OHIO 


111 


The  styloid  processes  are  frequently  broken  off  short,  but  it  is 
usually  possible  to  judge  their  development  by  the  stumps. 

Glenoid  Fossa  — Depth 


Submedium 

Medium 

Deep 

Very  deep 

Total 

Males:  number. .  . 

.  .  1 

26 

24 

3 

54 

“  per  cent .  . 

.  .  1.85 

48.14 

44.44 

5.55 

Females:  number. 

.  .  2 

19 

8 

1 

30 

per  cent 

.  .  6.66 

63.33 

26.66 

3.33 

The  table  above  shows  that  the  series  is  characterized  as  a  whole 
by  the  prevalence  of  glenoid  fossae  of  medium  or  greater  depth. 
Females  exhibit  fewer  instances  of  the  latter. 

Postglenoid  Process 

Submedium  Medium  Large  Very  large  Total 


Males:  number .  6  6  5  0  17 

“  per  cent .  29.62 

Females:  number .  1  0  2  0  3 

“  per  cent .  10.0 


The  postglenoid  process  is  not  usually  to  be  observed  in  this 
series.  It  occurs  much  more  frequently  in  male  crania  than  in 


female  crania. 

Foramen  Lacerum  Medium 

Small 

Medium 

Large 

Total 

Males:  number . 

.  24 

19 

1 

44 

“  per  cent . 

.  54.52 

43.15 

2.27 

Females:  number.  .  .  . 

.  18 

9 

0 

27 

per  cent.  .  .  . 

.  66.6 

33.3 

0 

Depression  of  Petrous 

Parts  of  Temporal  Bones 

Absent  Slight 

Medium 

Pronounced 

Total 

Males:  number  2 

13 

23 

6 

44 

“  per  cent  4.54  29.51 

52.25 

3.62 

Females:  number  2 

15 

10 

0 

27 

per  cent  7.4  55.5 

37.0 

0 

In  large -brained  races  the  lacerate  foramina  are  usually  large 
and  the  petrous  portions  of  the  temporal  bones  are  depressed  well 
below  the  level  of  the  basilar  process  of  the  occipital  bone.  A  well- 
developed  brain  pushes  the  basilar  process  outward  beyond  the 
level  of  the  rigid  petrous  parts.  An  analysis  of  the  above  table 
shows  that  our  Madisonville  crania  do  not  exhibit  high  develop¬ 
ment  in  these  characters. 


112 


INDIAN  VILLAGE  SITE  AND  CEMETERY 


Foramen  Lace  rum  Posterior 


Small 

Medium 

Large 

Right 

larger 

Left 

larger 

Equal 

Total 

Males:  number  9 

30 

3 

17 

7 

18 

42 

“  per  cent  21.42 

71.40 

7.14 

40.46 

16.66 

42.84 

Females:  number  5 

19 

1 

8 

3 

14 

25 

“  per  cent  20.0 

76.0 

4.0 

32.0 

12.0 

56.0 

Where  there  is  a  difference  in  the  size  of  the  two  posterior  lacer¬ 
ate  foramina,  the  right  foramen  is  usually  the  larger,  as  may  be 
seen  from  the  above  tabulations.  Fuller  states  that  the  right  fora¬ 
men  is  usually  much  larger  in  Tennessee  Stone  Grave  crania. 


Post-condyloid  Foramina 


Absent 

Small 

Medium 

Large 

Right 

only 

Left 

only 

Total 

Males:  number. ...  2 

5 

28 

1 

3 

1 

40 

“  per  cent . . .  5.0 

12.5 

70.0 

2.5 

7.5 

2.5 

Females:  number. .  0 

0 

18 

4 

4 

0 

26 

per  cent .  0 

0 

78.24 

4.34 

17.38 

0 

PARA-MASTOID  PROCESSES. 

These  were  observed 

in  3  male  and 

2  female  crania. 

Shape  of  For.amen  Magnum 

Irregular  Oval  Half  diamond  Round  Diamond 

Hexagon 

Total 

Males:  number  4 

20 

8 

6 

2 

0 

40 

“  percent  10.0 

50.0 

20.0 

15.0 

5.0 

0 

Females:  number  2 

8 

8 

4 

2 

2 

26 

“  per  cent  7.69 

30.76 

30.76 

15.38 

7.69 

7.69 

There  is  considerable  variation  in  the  shape  of  the  foramen 
magnum.  In  the  males  the  oval  form  predominates.  In  the  table 
above  “  half  diamond  ”  means  that  the  anterior  half  of  the  fora¬ 
men  is  shaped  like  two  sides  of  an  equilateral  triangle,  while  the 
posterior  half  is  semi-circular  or  semi-oval. 

Pterygo-spinous  Foramina 


Right 

Indicated 

Left 

Both 

Total 

Right 

Complete 

Left 

Both 

Total 

Males:  number. .  . . 

3 

1 

4 

8 

1 

3 

1 

5 

“  per  cent .  .  . 
Females:  number. . 

1 

3 

1 

17.0 

5 

1 

1 

1 

10.63 

3 

“  per  cent . 

20.0 

12.0 

Ptery go-spinous  foramina,  complete  or  indicated  to  have  been 
completed  by  a  fibrous  bridge,  are  relatively  common  in  this  series. 


NEAR  MADISONVILLE,  OHIO 


113 


Fuller  seems  to  have  found  a  higher  frequency  of  occurrence  in 
his  Tennessee  series,  for  he  reports  the  foramen,  or  indications  of  it, 
on  one  or  both  sides  in  45.71  per  cent  of  males,  and  47.54  per  cent 
of  females. 


Dehiscences  in  the  Floor  of  the  Auditory  Meatus 

Right  Left  Both  Total 


Males :  number .  2  3  4  9 

“  per  cent .  20.0 

Females:  number .  3  2  4  9 

“  per  cent .  33.33 


Defects  in  the  floor  of  the  auditory  meatus  are  common  in  the 
crania  of  American  Indians.  Fuller  found  them  in  14  per  cent  of 
144  Tennessee  Stone  Grave  crania;  Dr.  Hrdlcika  found  them  in  14 
per  cent  of  crania  from  Arkansas,  and  in  29  per  cent  of  crania  from 
Louisiana.  Both  of  these  authors  also  found  them  to  occur  much 
more  commonly  in  the  crania  of  females. 

Mandible.  Mandibles  were  associated  with  the  skulls  in  the  case 
of  29  males  and  12  females.  The  more  important  observations  on 
these  are  tabulated  below. 


Size 


Submedium 

Medium 

Large 

Very  large 

Total 

Males :  number .  .  .  , 

.  .  .  7 

13 

7 

2 

29 

“  per  cent .  . . 

. . .  24.1 

44.8 

24.1 

6.90 

Females :  number. . 

2 

9 

1 

0 

12 

per  cent. 

.  . .  16.6 

75.0 

8.3 

0 

Males:  number. . 

“  per  cent. . 
Females:  number 
per  cent 


Neutral 

1  8 

3.4  27.6 

2  5 

16.6  41.6 


Large 

5 

17.2 
5  0 

41.6  0 


Very  large  Total 

0  29 

0 

0  12 

0 


Mental  Prominence 
Submedium  Medium 


15 

51.7 


Mylo-hyoid  Ridge 


Submedium 

Males:  number .  11 

“  per  cent ....  37.9 

Females:  number. .  .  7 

percent..  58.3 


Medium 

Prononuced 

Very  pronounced 

Total 

17 

1 

0 

29 

58.6 

3.4 

0 

5 

0 

0 

12 

41.6 

0 

0 

114 


INDIAN  VILLAGE  SITE  AND  CEMETERY 


Genial  Tubercles 


Absent 

Submedium 

Medium 

Large 

Very  large 

Total 

Males:  number. . . 

.  1 

16 

10 

1 

1 

29 

“  per  cent. . . 

.  3.4 

55.2 

34.5 

3.4 

3.4 

Females:  number. 

.  0 

9 

3 

0 

0 

12 

“  per  cent. 

.  0 

75.0 

25.0 

0 

0 

From  the  above  tables  it  may  be  seen  that  the  characteristic 
mandible  is  of  medium  size  with  a  medium  development  of  the 
mental  prominence  and  a  medium  or  submedium  development  of 
the  mylo-hyoid  ridge.  The  genial  tubercles  are  poorly  developed. 

Pathological  Features.  In  the  following  discussion  alveolar 
abscesses  and  dental  caries  have  not  been  considered,  as  these 
pathological  features  have  already  been  dealt  with  above. 

Lesions  Probably  of  Traumatic  Origin 

Depressed  scars  Linear  fractures  Miscellaneous 


Males:  number .  9  2  4 

Females:  number .  4  0  0 


About  22  per  cent  of  the  male  crania  in  our  series  show  lesions 
that  are  probably  due  to  wounds.  Most  common  are  depressed 
scars  on  various  portions  of  the  cranial  vault.  No.  57512  has  an 
old  perforated  lesion  on  the  left  parietal  near  bregma,  oval  in 
shape,  and  9  mm.  in  its  longest  diameter.  The  tip  of  a  small  flint 
arrowpoint  is  also  embedded  in  the  outer  table  of  the  left  parietal, 
27  mm.  behind  the  coronal  suture  and  42  mm.  from  bregma.  No. 
35529  has  a  large  depressed  fracture  on  the  right  parietal,  2  cm. 
in  diameter. 

No.  35527  also  has  an  arrowpoint  embedded  in  the  occiput. 
No.  57056  has  a  healed  linear  fracture  of  the  occipital  bone  extend¬ 
ing  from  opisthion  to  lambda.  No.  25126  has  a  linear  fracture  of 
the  left  parietal  extending  diagonally  from  lambda  to  a  point  3  cm. 
behind  the  coronal  suture.  Near  the  middle  of  this  fracture  and 
extending  over  an  oval  area  for  a  distance  of  45  mm.  in  its  long  axis 
is  an  irregular  cicatrized  scar  with  a  maximum  breadth  of  35  mm. 
This  is  the  area  of  impact  of  the  blow  which  was  apparently  de¬ 
livered  with  some  blunt  weapon. 

No.  58733  presents  a  cut  in  the  right  supra-orbital  ridge  and  a 
fracture  of  the  left  zygomatic  arch.  No.  58058  has  a  healed  fracture 
of  the  right  horizontal  ramus  of  the  mandible. 


Peabody  Museum  Papers 


Vol.  VIII,  Plate  29 


Madisonville  Site 
Male  cranium,  intermediate  type 
Norma  lateralis  Norma  facialis 

Norma  verticalis  Norma  occipitalis 


NEAR  MADISONVILLE,  OHIO 


115 


Langdon  found  eleven  cases  of  fracture  in  141  Madisonville 
crania  examined  by  him,  and  one  skull  with  the  fragment  of  a  small 
flint  arrowpoint  imbedded  in  the  occiput. 

Arthritic  conditions  were  observed  about  the  occipital  or  man¬ 
dibular  condyles  or  in  the  glenoid  fossae  of  three  male  crania  and 
one  female  cranium.  In  addition  to  this  two  male  crania  presented 
ankylosis  of  the  atlas  to  the  occiput,  probably  of  arthritic  origin. 
Langdon  found  this  condition  in  3  of  141  Madisonville  crania  ex¬ 
amined  by  him. 

Three  female  crania  presented  slight  exostoes  of  doubtful  origin 
in  various  regions.  No.  25128,  the  skull  of  a  female,  presented  evi¬ 
dence  of  an  abscess  in  the  left  ear,  which  had  involved  extensive  ab¬ 
sorption  of  the  bony  tissue  and  a  perforation  of  the  tympanic  plate. 

No.  35528  presented  a  small  bony  protuberance  on  the  left 
parietal  near  bregma  corresponding  to  a  deep  circular  impression 
internally,  circular  in  shape  and  about  5  mm.  in  diameter,  connected 
with  the  groove  for  the  meningeal  artery,  which  was  unusually 
large  and  deep. 

Summary  of  Measurements  and  Observations  upon  the  Crania. 

A  slight  degree  of  unintentional  occipital  deformation  is  very  com¬ 
mon  in  the  Madisonville  series,  but  this  is  pronounced  in  a  few 
cases  only.  Apparently  it  has  affected  brachycephalic  crania  much 
more  than  dolichocephalic  crania,  and  probably  no  crania  have 
been  changed  from  the  dolichocephalic  class  to  the  brachycephalic 
class  through  his  agency.  No  frontal  deformation  occurs. 

’About  three-fourths  of  the  crania  are  brachycephalic  (plates  25, 
26),  and  the  remainder  are  mesocephalic  (plates  27,  28,  29),  with 
the  exception  of  two,  which  are  dolichocephalic.  Three-fourths  or 
more  are  hypsicephalic  and  the  rest  orthocephalic.  The  breadth- 
height  index  is  medium  in  about  half  of  the  series  and  low  in  the 
majority  of  the  remainder.  The  cranial  capacity  is  well  up  to  the 
average  for  Indians.  The  skull  walls  are  not  extraordinarily  thick. 
The  forehead  is  a  little  narrower  than  average  for  Indians. 

The  faces  are  broad  and  quite  short;  the  majority  being  eury- 
prosopic  and  the  rest  mesoprosopic.  The  orbits  are  variable,  but 
the  majority  are  chamaeconch  or  microseme.  The  nose  is  short 
and  broad,  and  platyrrhine  indices  are  in  the  majority.  There  is 
some  alveolar  prognathism  but  practically  no  facial  prognathism. 
The  palate  is  brachyuranic  and  the  lower  jaw  is  short  and  broad. 


116 


MEASUREMENTS  OF  CRANIA  FROM  THE 


Catalogue  No. 

<D 

CO 

<V 

to 

< 

Deformation 

Length 

■"S 

& 

<U 

U 

PQ 

-4J 

'oi 

K 

H 

£ 

G 

Height-Length 

Index 

Heigh  t-  Bread  th 

Index 

Menton-Nasion 

Height  (a) 

1 

Alveon-Nasion 
|  Height  (6) 

Diam.  Bizygomatic 

maxim,  (c) 

Facial  Index,  total 

/a_X100\ 

Facial  Index ,  upper 

(b  X  100\ 

Basion-Alveon  (a:)’ 

Basion-Nasion  (y) 

18205 

d 

mid. 

— 

180 

145 

138 

80.56 

76.67 

95.17 

? 

74 

145 

51.03 

101 

107 

18207 

d 

y.  ad. 

— 

176 

151 

? 

85.80 

? 

? 

? 

71 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

25123 

d 

y.  ad. 

si.  oc. 

177 

152 

139 

85.88 

78.53 

91.45 

? 

69 

(143) 

? 

(48.25) 

92 

101 

25124 

d 

y.  ad. 

.  si.  oc. 

173 

152 

126 

87.86 

72.83 

82.89 

107 

67 

(141) 

75.89 

(47.51) 

100 

102 

25126 

d 

y.  ad. 

— 

177 

138 

139 

77.97 

78.53 

100.72 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

25130 

d 

y.  ad. 

si.  oc. 

177 

150 

139 

84.75 

78.53 

92.67 

124 

78 

148 

83.78 

52.70 

105 

105 

25131 

d 

y.  ad. 

— 

177 

141 

138 

79.66 

77.97 

97.87 

115 

71 

137 

83.94 

51.82 

102 

106 

25132 

d 

mid. 

pron.  1.  oc. 

(163) 

(148) 

? 

(90.80) 

? 

? 

(117) 

(70) 

140 

83.57 

(50.00 

? 

? 

26587 

d 

mid. 

— 

184 

146 

140 

79.35 

76.09 

95.89 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

26593 

d 

old 

pron.  oc. 

(178) 

(147) 

(141) 

(82.58) 

79.21 

95.92 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

26599 

d 

old 

si.  oc. 

173 

142 

140 

82.08 

80.92 

98.59 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

26605 

d 

y.  ad. 

si.  oc. 

178 

138 

? 

77.53 

? 

? 

117 

70 

139 

84.17 

50.36 

? 

? 

26609 

d 

y.  ad. 

si.  oc. 

164 

137 

134 

83.54 

81.71 

97.81 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

26627 

d 

y.  ad. 

si.  oc. 

173 

(154) 

134 

(89.02) 

77.46 

(87.01) 

120 

72 

(140) 

(85.71) 

51.42 

102 

104 

26988 

d 

y.  ad. 

si.  oc. 

161 

144 

129 

89.44 

80.12 

89.58 

114 

70 

136 

83.82 

42.16 

101 

100 

28294 

d 

y.  ad. 

si.  oc. 

176 

147 

? 

83.52 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

35524 

d 

mid. 

si.  oc. 

182 

140 

141 

76.92 

77.47 

100.71 

122 

74 

149 

81.83 

49.66 

99 

106 

35525 

d 

y.  ad. 

— 

182 

137 

138 

75.27 

75.82 

100.73 

? 

70 

135 

? 

51.85 

102 

105 

35526 

d 

y.  ad. 

si.  og. 

177 

149 

135 

84.18 

76.27 

90.60 

? 

74 

143 

? 

51.74 

? 

? 

35527 

d 

mid. 

si.  oc. 

179 

150 

143 

83.80 

79.89 

95.33 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

109 

35528 

d 

y.  ad. 

si.  oc. 

167 

147 

? 

88.02 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

57502 

d 

y.  ad. 

si.  oc. 

176 

138 

135 

78.41 

76.70 

97.83 

? 

70 

? 

? 

? 

104 

104 

57504 

d 

y.  ad. 

si.  oc. 

169 

(156) 

? 

(92.31) 

? 

? 

109 

66 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

57506 

d 

y.  ad. 

si.  oc. 

174 

140 

132 

SO. 46 

75.86 

94.29 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

57567 

d 

y.  ad. 

— 

?  . 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

116 

73 

(137) 

84.67 

53.28 

100 

108 

57608 

d 

y.  ad. 

pron.  r.  oc. 

(177) 

(146) 

(139) 

(82.49) 

(78.53) 

(95.21) 

121 

74 

? 

? 

99 

101 

57579 

d 

y.  ad. 

si.  oc. 

173 

153 

137 

88.44 

79.19 

89.54 

? 

67 

(143) 

? 

46.85 

105 

108 

57507 

d 

y.  ad. 

— 

182 

14S 

137 

81.32 

75.27 

92.57 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

57519 

d 

y.  ad 

si.  oc. 

179 

145 

139 

81.01 

77.65 

95.86 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

57625 

d 

mid. 

si.  oc. 

169 

148 

? 

87.57 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

57636 

d 

mid. 

si.  oc. 

188 

(144) 

138 

(76.60) 

73.40 

(95.83) 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

57555 

d 

y.  ad. 

— 

181 

145 

138 

80.11 

76.24 

95.17 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

58533 

d 

y.  ad. 

si.  oc. 

180 

149 

131 

82.78 

72.78 

87.92 

? 

(69) 

? 

? 

? 

101 

103 

58542 

d 

mid. 

— 

173 

143 

? 

82.66 

? 

? 

109 

70 

(136) 

(80.15) 

(51.47) 

? 

? 

58540 

d 

y.  ad. 

si.  oc. 

181 

138 

131 

76.24 

72.38 

94.93 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

58058 

d 

old 

si.  oc. 

187 

146 

136 

78.07 

72.73 

93.15 

120 

72 

(145) 

(82.76) 

49.65 

104 

110 

57597 

d 

mid. 

si.  oc. 

185 

155 

147 

83.78 

79.46 

94.84 

? 

SI 

? 

? 

? 

105 

114 

57568 

d 

mid. 

med.  oc. 

176 

156 

134 

(88.64) 

76.14 

85.90 

114 

(69) 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

57646 

d 

old 

— 

177 

133 

? 

75.14 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

57647 

d 

y.  ad. 

pron.  oc. 

(173) 

154 

? 

(89.02) 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

58541 

d 

mid. 

si.  oc. 

172 

141 

139 

81.98 

80.81 

98.58 

? 

79 

141 

? 

56.02 

98 

100 

58539 

d 

y.  ad. 

si.  oc. 

195 

160 

143 

82.05 

73.33 

89.38 

125 

76 

139 

89.93 

54.67 

96 

106 

flat.  p.  m. 

58538 

d 

mid. 

\sl.  oc. 

(184) 

(141) 

(139) 

(76.63) 

(75.54) 

(98.58) 

? 

69 

? 

? 

98 

104 

58534 

d 

mid. 

si.  oc. 

176 

144 

138 

81.82 

78.41 

95.83 

? 

74 

136 

? 

54.41 

91 

100 

58023 

d 

old 

— 

179 

153 

140 

85.47 

78.21 

91.50 

? 

(73) 

(138) 

? 

(52.89) 

(96) 

(103) 

CEMETERY  NEAR  MADISONVILLE,  OHIO 


117 


Gnathic  Index 
(x  X  100\ 

-N 

Diam.  Frontal 
minim. 

Diam.  Bigonial 

Angle  of  Lower 

Jaw,  mean 

Height  of 

Symphysis 

a 

Orbits  —  Height, 
right,  left 

Orbits  —  Breadth, 

right,  left 

Orbital  Index,  mean 

Nose  Height 

Nose  Breadth 

maxim. 

Nasal  Index 

Palate,  External 

Length  (1) 

Palate,  External 

Breadth,  maxim.  (6) 

Palatal  Index 

fb  X  10Q\ 

- 

Circumference,  maxim. 

(above  ridges) 

Arc,  Nasion-Opisthion 

Capacity 

(Hrdlicka’s  Method) 

Thickness  of  left 

Parietal  above  T.  P. 

Suture 

94.37 

92 

? 

? 

? 

33 

32.5 

43 

42 

77.06 

55 

28 

50.91 

54 

65 

120.37 

513 

357 

1480 

6 

? 

101 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

50 

23 

46.00 

54 

63 

116.67 

(523) 

? 

? 

4 

91.09 

91 

101 

130 

32 

33 

33 

40 

40 

82.50 

50 

27 

54.00 

52 

64 

123.08 

525 

379 

1630 

6 

98.04 

94 

106 

116.5 

32 

34 

35 

40 

40 

86.25 

(54) 

29 

(53.70) 

56 

64 

114.29 

509 

7 

(1340) 

4 

? 

96 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

506 

368 

(1340) 

? 

100.00 

94 

105 

116.5 

37 

31 

33 

46 

40 

74.95 

54 

29 

53.70 

64 

74 

115.63 

512 

355 

1420 

7 

96.23 

94 

? 

? 

34 

34 

33.5 

43 

41 

80.39 

51.5 

29 

56.31 

56 

64 

114.29 

510 

356 

1350 

6 

? 

98 

105 

134 

43 

32 

33 

42 

? 

76.19 

49 

? 

? 

59 

67 

113.56 

497 

? 

(1295) 

6 

? 

100 

? 

? 

? 

? 

7 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

530 

379 

? 

6 

7 

95 

108 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

512 

345 

? 

4 

? 

91 

? 

? 

32 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

(487) 

(365) 

? 

6 

? 

93 

117 

107 

36 

34 

35 

41 

39 

86.34 

48 

27 

56.25 

56 

64 

114.29 

503 

359 

(1375) 

5 

? 

98 

? 

? 

37 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

482 

334 

(1265) 

4 

98.08 

93 

103 

127 

35 

31.5  31.5 

42.5 

42.5 

74.12 

53.5 

27 

50.47 

56 

65 

116.07 

? 

? 

? 

4 

101.00 

93 

95 

115 

32 

33 

33 

40 

41 

81.50 

52 

27 

51.92 

57 

69 

121.05 

485 

335 

1270 

7 

? 

98 

108 

130 

29 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

519 

? 

? 

5 

93.40 

99 

106 

122 

39 

34.5  35 

42 

42 

82.74 

53 

28 

52.83 

55 

71 

129.09 

519 

375 

1405 

5 

97.14 

96 

? 

? 

? 

37 

37 

40 

40 

92.50 

49 

23 

46.94 

61 

69 

113.11 

510 

370 

1460 

6 

? 

95 

? 

? 

? 

34 

36 

41 

40 

86.44 

54.5 

25 

45.87 

52 

62 

119.23 

526 

358 

1465 

? 

? 

88 

? 

? 

? 

35 

36 

? 

41 

87.80 

52 

23 

44.23 

53 

62 

116.98 

518 

368 

1550 

7 

? 

91 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

505 

348 

? 

5 

100.00 

? 

? 

? 

? 

32 

32 

39 

39 

82.05 

51 

26 

50.98 

58 

69 

118.97 

? 

? 

? 

4 

7 

100 

108 

126 

32 

34 

34 

43 

42 

80.01 

48 

26 

54.17 

54 

65 

120.37 

? 

? 

? 

4 

? 

103 

? 

? 

? 

? 

7 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

508 

353 

1330 

8 

92.59 

? 

? 

? 

? 

36 

36 

41 

41 

87.80 

57 

26 

45.61 

54 

62 

114.81 

? 

? 

? 

T 

98.02 

96 

98 

127 

37 

32 

32 

41 

43 

76.23 

53 

27 

50.94 

57 

67 

117.54 

510 

? 

(1610) 

5 

97.22 

99 

? 

? 

? 

31 

31 

42 

41 

76.51 

48 

30 

62.50 

60 

64 

106.67 

518 

349 

1500 

5 

? 

95 

? 

9 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

520 

368 

1370 

8 

? 

97 

? 

9 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

517 

362 

1440 

6 

7 

97 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

7 

? 

7 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

375 

? 

4 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

369 

1395 

6 

98.06 

91 

? 

136 

37 

33 

35 

41 

39 

85.11 

51 

26 

50.98 

55 

65 

118.18 

516 

361 

1380 

9 

7 

98 

98 

124 

30 

40 

40 

40 

39 

101.28 

53 

28 

52.83 

52 

58 

111.54 

508 

? 

? 

3 

? 

91 

91 

126 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

505 

363 

? 

6 

94.55 

99 

110 

148 

39 

31 

29.5 

45 

45 

67.27 

52 

32 

61.54 

? 

? 

? 

523 

372 

1420 

5 

92.11 

97 

? 

? 

? 

36 

? 

46 

? 

78.26 

57 

(30) 

(52.63) 

58 

72 

124.14 

528 

368 

1595 

7 

7 

95 

108 

130 

32 

? 

34 

? 

41.5 

81.93 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

525 

358 

(1505) 

6 

7 

95 

? 

? 

? 

35 

35 

41 

41 

85.37 

53 

28 

52.83 

? 

? 

? 

502 

365 

(1440) 

6 

7 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

?, 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

98.00 

93 

? 

? 

? 

34 

34 

40 

40 

85.00 

56 

26 

46.43 

60 

69 

115.00 

503 

365 

1405 

6 

90.57 

96 

100 

121 

37 

35.5  35.5 

41.5 

41.5 

85.54 

54 

24 

44.44 

55 

(65) 

(118.18) 

517 

362 

(1600) 

4 

94.23 

93 

? 

? 

7 

35 

? 

40 

7 

87.50 

52 

29 

55.77 

? 

? 

? 

? 

368 

(1520) 

4 

91.00 

87 

103 

126 

37 

34 

34 

39 

38 

88.32 

53 

27 

50.94 

51 

62 

121.57 

503 

370 

1410 

8 

(93.20) 

96 

97 

131 

? 

35 

36 

44 

43 

81.64 

55 

28 

50.91 

? 

? 

? 

522 

372 

1365 

14 

118 


MEASUREMENTS  OF  CRANIA  FROM  THE 


Catalogue  No. 

Sex 

Age 

Deformation 

Length 

Breadth 

Height 

Cranial  Index 

Height-Length 

Index 

Height -  Breadth 

Index 

Menton-Nasion 

Height  (a) 

Alveon-Nasion 

Height  (6) 

Diam.  Bizygomatic 

maxim,  (c) 

Facial  Index ,  total 

(a  X  100) 

Facial  Index ,  upper 

(b  X  100\ 

O 

Basion-Alveon  (x) 

Basion-Nasion  (y) 

59724 

c? 

mid. 

— 

183 

146 

134 

79.78 

73.22 

91.78 

121 

74 

147 

82.31 

50.34 

100 

105 

59729 

d 

mid. 

si.  oc. 

175 

150 

135 

85.71 

77.14 

90.00 

120 

(72) 

140 

85.71 

51.42 

(102) 

105 

59731 

d 

mid. 

si.  oc. 

175 

142 

135 

81.14 

77.14 

95.07 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

7 

59732 

d 

y.  ad. 

— 

184 

137 

136 

74.46 

73.91 

99.27 

112 

67 

(132) 

84.85 

50.76 

103 

108 

59733 

d 

y.  ad. 

— 

179 

138 

131 

77.09 

73.18 

94.93 

121 

75 

136 

88.97 

55.14 

102 

103 

59735 

d 

mid. 

si.  oc. 

180 

148 

136 

82.22 

75.56 

91.89 

131 

(79) 

(150) 

(87.33) 

(52.40) 

108 

111 

26990 

d 

y.  ad. 

si.  oc. 

189 

155 

140 

82  01 

74.07 

90.32 

? 

73 

149 

? 

48.99 

98 

108 

57512 

d 

y.  ad. 

si.  oc. 

180 

152 

139 

84.44 

77.22 

91.45 

121 

73 

(144) 

(84.03) 

(50.69) 

104 

108 

18206 

$ 

y.  ad. 

_ 

167 

133 

130 

78.70 

76.92 

97.74 

? 

64 

? 

? 

? 

100 

99 

25125 

9 

y.  ad. 

— 

171 

138 

127 

80.70 

74.27 

92.03 

? 

? 

126 

? 

? 

? 

100 

/med.p.m. 

25127 

9 

mid. 

\sl.  oc. 

(171) 

(150) 

(141) 

(87.72) 

(82.46) 

(94.00) 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

98 

25128 

9 

y.  ad. 

si.  oc. 

161 

142 

134 

88.20 

83.23 

94.37 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

7 

25133 

9 

y.  ad. 

si.  oc. 

161 

141 

124 

87.58 

77.02 

87.94 

? 

67 

133 

? 

50.38 

93 

96 

25134 

9 

med. 

si.  oc. 

169 

145 

128 

85.80 

75.74 

88.28 

? 

72 

136 

? 

52.94 

102 

103 

25135 

9 

y.  ad. 

— 

171 

142 

134 

83.04 

78.36 

94.37 

? 

69 

? 

? 

? 

97 

105 

25136 

9 

y.  ad. 

si.  oc. 

167 

141 

135 

84.43 

80.84 

95.74 

? 

63 

128 

? 

49.22 

94 

103 

25137 

9 

y.  ad. 

— 

166 

139 

137 

83.73 

82.53 

98.56 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

26591 

9 

y.  ad. 

si.  oc. 

169 

144 

132 

85.21 

78.11 

91.67 

105 

62 

? 

? 

? 

100 

102 

26597 

9 

y.  ad. 

si.  p.  m. 

175 

140 

124 

80.00 

7.0.86 

88.57 

? 

67 

? 

? 

? 

(104) 

104 

26621 

9 

y.  ad. 

si.  oc. 

174 

145 

133 

83.33 

76.44 

91.72 

113 

68 

136 

83.09 

50.00 

101 

105 

26601 

9 

mid. 

si.  oc. 

169 

145 

125 

85.80 

73.96 

86.21 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

92 

26626 

9 

y.  ad. 

si.  oc. 

166 

144 

124 

86.75 

74.70 

86.11 

104 

64 

126 

82.54 

50.79 

(102) 

102 

26628 

9 

mid. 

si.  oc. 

177 

139 

? 

78.53 

?  ' 

? 

? 

63 

130 

? 

48.46 

? 

? 

57505 

9 

y.  ad. 

si.  oc 

167 

139 

132 

83.23 

79.04 

94.96 

? 

61 

(133) 

? 

45.86 

96 

96 

57559 

9 

y.  ad. 

pron.  oc. 

(167) 

(142) 

(129) 

(85.03) 

(77.25) 

(90.85) 

? 

64 

133 

? 

48.12 

96 

98 

58536 

9 

y.  ad. 

si.  oc. 

179 

126 

127 

70.39 

70.95 

100.79 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

58532 

9 

y.  ad. 

si.  oc. 

175 

140 

135 

80.00 

77.14 

96.43 

113 

69 

134 

84.33 

51.49 

104 

105 

57514 

9 

y.  ad. 

med.  oc. 

161 

149 

? 

(92.55) 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

7 

57620 

9 

y.  ad. 

si.  oc. 

170 

145 

134 

85.29 

78.82 

92.41 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

7 

57544 

9 

mid. 

med.  oc. 

171 

144 

134 

84.21 

78.36 

93.06 

? 

63 

(129) 

? 

(48.84) 

94 

102 

57558 

9 

y.  ad. 

si.  oc. 

169 

136 

129 

80.47 

76.33 

94.85 

? 

69 

? 

? 

? 

99 

103 

58049 

9 

old 

si.  oc. 

167 

148 

139 

88.62 

83.23 

93.92 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

58009 

9 

y.  ad. 

si.  oc. 

163 

138 

132 

84.66 

80.98 

95.65 

115 

69 

(132) 

(87.12) 

52.27 

103 

103 

58025 

9 

mid. 

pron.  oc. 

(165) 

(146) 

(138) 

(88.48) 

(83.64) 

(94.52) 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

59723 

9 

y.  ad. 

— 

179 

138 

127 

77.09 

70.95 

92.03 

109 

70 

125 

87.20 

56.00 

98 

108 

59730 

9 

old 

si.  oc. 

168 

148 

132 

88.10 

78.57 

89.19 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

7 

101 

57645 

9 

y.  ad. 

si.  oc. 

164 

143 

129 

87.20 

78.66 

90.21 

113 

67 

(138) 

81.88 

(48.55) 

103 

99 

Key  to  abbreviations. 

Age:  y.  ad.  =  young  adult;  mid.  =  middle  aged;  old  =  past  middle  age. 

Deformation:  si.  =  slight;  med.  =  medium;  pron.  =  pronounced;  oc.  =  occipital;  r.  =  right;  1.  =  left;  p.  m. 
=  post-mortem. 

Figures  in  parentheses  indicate  that  the  measurement  is  approximate,  either  because  of  deformation  or  because 
the  parts  are  broken. 


CEMETERY  NEAR  M A DI80N VILLE,  OHIO  (continued) 


119 


Gnathic  Index 
(x  X  100\ 

56 

1 

d 

© 

E-! 

fe  . 

03  8 

S'§ 

Diana.  Bigonial 

Angle  of  Lower 

Jaw,  mean. 

Height  of 

Symphysis 

2 

-3^- 

3  A3 

d-g? 

R.  L. 

M 

Orbits  —  Breadth, 

right,  left 

Orbital  Index,  mean 

Nose  Height 

Nose  Breadth 

maxim. 

Nasal.  Index 

Palate,  Externa! 

Length  (1) 

Palate,  External 

Breadth,  maxim,  (5) 

I  Palatal  Index 
\  fb  X  100\ 

Circumference,  maxim. 

(above  ridges) 

d 

o 

2 

+3 

.3 

a 

1 

a 

o 

< 

Capacity 

(Hrdlifika’s  method) 

Thickness  of  left 

Parietal  above  T.  P. 
Suture 

95.24 

92 

109 

132 

38 

36 

34 

40.5  40.5 

81.48 

53 

27 

50.94 

57 

71 

124  56 

525 

369 

1580 

4 

97.14 

95 

105 

123 

(30) 

35 

36.5 

38.5  39 

92.25 

55 

28 

50.91 

54 

62 

114.81 

521 

351 

1485 

6 

? 

90 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

?  ? 

? 

7 

? 

? 

? 

7 

? 

502 

345 

1295 

6 

95.37 

96 

.100 

123 

35 

36 

37 

44  44 

83.45 

48 

27 

56.25 

54 

65 

120.37 

510 

368 

1425 

? 

99.03 

91 

99 

130 

36 

34 

33 

44  43 

77.00 

55 

29 

52.73 

59 

68 

115.25 

502 

352 

1290 

6 

97.30 

94 

106 

117 

38 

-35 

37 

44  43 

82.80 

58 

27.5 

47.41 

(59) 

(70) 

(118.64) 

514 

348 

1375 

? 

90.74 

100 

?' 

? 

? 

35 

34 

42  42 

84.52 

50 

27.5 

55.00 

56 

69 

123.21 

537 

379 

1570 

7 

96.30 

93 

101 

119 

37 

34 

34 

44  43 

78.17 

55 

26 

47.27 

58 

67 

115.52 

518 

368 

1585 

7 

101.01 

92 

? 

? 

? 

33 

33.5 

39  39 

85.26 

47 

25 

53.19 

54 

62 

114.81 

486 

345 

1220 

6 

? 

92 

? 

? 

? 

31.5 

32.5 

38.5  39 

82.57 

50 

26 

52.00 

(46) 

63 

(136.96) 

489 

348 

1340 

4 

? 

103 

? 

? 

? 

? 

7 

7  ? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

7 

? 

7 

7 

? 

93 

? 

? 

7 

? 

? 

?  ? 

? 

7 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

485 

(338) 

7 

6 

96.88 

97 

? 

? 

7 

33 

34 

38  38 

88.16 

48 

27 

56.25 

51 

67 

131.37 

481 

328 

1180 

5 

99.03 

96 

? 

? 

? 

32 

32 

41  41 

78.05 

49.5 

27 

54.55 

58 

65 

112.07 

507 

? 

? 

6 

92.38 

89 

? 

? 

7 

35 

34.5 

39  38 

90.27 

52 

26 

50.00 

52 

61 

117.31 

498 

342 

1325 

7 

91.26 

89 

? 

? 

■'? 

33.5 

32 

39  38 

85.06 

41.5 

28.5 

68.67 

50 

(58) 

(116.00) 

487 

339 

1220 

7 

? 

93 

? 

7 

7 

? 

7 

?  ? 

7 

7 

? 

? 

7 

? 

7 

489 

344 

1300 

5 

98.04 

95 

105 

7 

32 

32 

31.5 

?  44 

71.59 

48 

26 

54.17 

51 

64 

125.49 

500 

340 

1320 

6 

(100) 

85 

? 

7 

7 

32 

33 

40  39 

82.31 

48 

27 

56.25 

(52) 

60 

(115.38) 

505 

(348) 

7 

6 

96.19 

96 

96 

125 

34 

33 

33.5 

41  40 

82.12 

48 

28 

58.33 

53 

60 

113.21 

(512) 

7 

7 

5 

? 

99 

? 

? 

32 

7 

? 

?  ? 

? 

? 

? 

7 

? 

? 

? 

502 

348 

7 

6 

(100) 

86 

93 

127 

30 

31 

33 

40  41 

79.00 

48 

26 

54.17 

(52) 

(58) 

(111.54) 

462 

? 

(1230) 

6 

? 

97 

? 

7 

? 

34 

34 

38.5  39 

87.74 

48 

30 

62.50 

51 

62 

121.57 

508 

7 

(1360) 

6 

100 

96 

? 

? 

? 

32 

32 

39  39 

82.05 

46.5 

29 

62.37 

49 

61 

124.49 

492 

350 

1350 

7 

97.96 

92 

7 

7 

? 

32 

32 

41  39 

80.05 

49 

28.5 

58.16 

53 

64 

120.75 

462 

340 

1355 

5 

? 

89 

? 

? 

7 

7 

? 

?  ? 

? 

? 

? 

7 

? 

? 

? 

494 

349 

1150 

5 

99.05 

99 

112 

123 

36 

32 

31 

39  38.5 

81.29 

48 

26 

54.17 

61 

66 

108.20 

515 

350 

1340 

6 

? 

? 

7 

? 

? 

? 

? 

7  7 

? 

? 

? 

7 

? 

? 

? 

7 

7 

f 

? 

7 

95 

? 

7 

7 

? 

7 

?  ? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

7 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

6 

92.16 

91 

7 

7 

7 

33.5 

34.5 

40  40.5 

84.46 

49 

26 

53.06 

(51) 

(60) 

(117.65) 

501 

354 

1380 

5 

96.12 

90 

? 

? 

? 

33 

33 

40  40 

82.50 

52 

26 

50.00 

55 

65 

118.18 

486 

330 

1205 

6 

? 

99 

? 

? 

? 

? 

7 

7  7 

? 

7 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

511 

365 

(1365) 

7 

100 

85 

96 

129 

35 

34.5 

33.5 

39  38 

88.31 

51 

26 

50.98 

54 

66 

121.29 

475 

? 

(1175) 

4 

? 

90 

? 

? 

7 

7 

? 

7  ? 

7 

? 

7 

? 

? 

? 

? 

491 

354 

(1250) 

7 

90.74 

90 

89 

125 

29 

33.5 

33.5 

41  38.5 

84.36 

54 

25 

46.30 

53 

58 

109.43 

506 

350 

1350 

5 

7 

90 

104 

129 

31 

? 

31 

?  38 

81.58 

49 

25 

51.02 

? 

7 

7 

498 

345 

(1375) 

7 

104,04 

93 

98 

127 

33 

32 

33 

40  40 

81.25 

48 

30 

62.50 

56 

67 

119.64 

483 

335 

1240 

6 

120 


INDIAN  VILLAGE  SITE  AND  CEMETERY 


The  frontal  region  is  medium  or  low  in  height,  medium  or  narrow 
in  breadth,  and  medium  or  receding  as  to  slope,  except  in  females, 
who  exhibit  more  instances  of  bulging  frontals. 

The  sagittal  region  is  medium  or  broad  with  little  development 
of  the  median  sagittal  elevation.  Temporal  and  occipital  regions 
are  variable,  as  is  natural  in  a  mixed  group.  In  about  two- 
thirds  of  cases  the  sutures  are  simple  in  serration,  and  in  the  rest 
medium.  Obliteration  usually  begins  in  the  sagittal  suture  and  the 
pterions  are  almost  invariably  of  the  broad  H  form.  Sutural  bones 
are  very  common. 

Parietal  foramina  are  few  and  small ;  retromastoid  foramina  ex¬ 
ceedingly  variable.  The  mastoid  processes  are  usually  rather  small 
or  medium  in  males;  in  females  they  are  often  rather  large  for  the 
sex. 

Brow  ridges  are  not  unusually  large  except  in  a  few  cases.  Fre¬ 
quently  they  are  submedium  in  development,  even  in  males. 
Orbits  are  usually  low  and  oblong  in  shape  with  rounded  corners. 
The  nasion  depression  in  both  sexes  is  poorly  marked,  often  en¬ 
tirely  absent.  The  nasal  bridge  is  variable  in  breadth  and  height, 
but  medium  in  about  half  of  all  cases.  Convex  and  concavo- 
convex  forms  are  most  common.  The  nasal  spine  is  usually  poorly 
developed  and  the  lower  borders  are  frequently  indistinct.  On  the 
other  hand  subnasal  grooves  or  fossae  are  uncommon. 

Molars  and  zygomae  are  medium  or  large  in  males  as  character¬ 
istic  of  American  Indians,  but  in  the  females  frequently  small. 
Depth  of  suborbital  fossae  is  variable.  The  palate  is  prevailingly 
parabolic,  sometimes  U-shaped  or  elliptical. 

The  teeth  show  marked  tendency  toward  cusp  reduction  and 
suppression  of  third  molars.  Usually  they  are  not  large.  Decay 
and  loss  in  life  are  frequent. 

The  glenoid  fossae  are  of  medium  depth  or  more;  dehiscences  in 
the  floor  of  the  auditory  meatus  are  common.  The  middle  lacerated 
foramina  are  submedium  to  medium  in  size;  the  depression  of  the 
petrous  parts  is  small  or  medium ;  the  posterior  lacerated  foramina 
are  prevailingly  medium  in  size,  but  frequently  small,  and,  when  of 
unequal  size,  the  right  is  usually  larger. 

While  the  mandibles  are  usually  of  medium  size  and  medium  de¬ 
velopment  in  the  majority  of  cases  as  regards  points  of  interest, 


NEAR  MADISONVILLE,  OHIO 


121 


there  is  a  large  sub-group  in  which  the  prominence  of  the  chin  is 
submedium,  and  the  development  of  the  mylo-hyoid  ridge  is  sub¬ 
medium.  The  genial  tubercles  are  prevailingly  small. 

In  general  it  is  apparent  that  this  group  is  the  result  of  a  mixture 
of  the  southern  brachycephalic  type  with  the  eastern  dolichoce¬ 
phalic  type,  the  latter  type  being  distinctly  in  the  minority.  While 
both  types  have  been  modified  by  the  mixture  it  is  clear  that  the 
dolichocephalic  type  has  suffered  most  in  this  regard  and  persists 
for  the  most  part  only  in  an  intermediate  form.  To  ascertain  the 
exact  results  of  the  intermixture  it  would  be  necessary  to  investi¬ 
gate  the  correlation  of  all  measurements  and  morphological  features 
in  the  individual  crania.  It  is  not  possible  to  attempt  this  within 
the  prescribed  limits  of  this  paper,  but  such  correlations  are  valu¬ 
able  and  it  is  hoped  that  they  may  be  presented  subsequently. 

The  Bones  in  General.  Of  the  large  collection  of  human  remains 
from  the  Madisonville  cemetery  in  the  Peabody  Museum,  the  vast 
majority  are  fragmentary  and  incomplete.  The  writer  examined 
the  skeletons  of  53  adult  males,  35  adult  females,  2  adults  of 
doubtful  sex,  9  adolescents,  6  children,  and  7  infants.  No  detailed 
study  of  the  bones  was  possible  in  the  time  allotted  for  the  investi¬ 
gation,  and  it  was  necessary  to  confine  the  attention  to  the  few  most 
important  measurements  and  observations  on  the  better  preserved 
specimens. 

In  almost  all  of  the  skeletons  the  ribs,  vertebrae,  scapulae,  and 
pelvic  bones  are  missing  or  fragmentary;  the  majority  of  the  skulls 
are  crushed  and  broken  beyond  repair  except  at  an  excessive  ex¬ 
penditure  of  labor;  most  of  the  long  bones  have  been  broken.  There 
is  not  one  complete  skeleton  in  good  condition  in  all  of  the  collec¬ 
tions  sent  in  by  Metz,  Swanton,  and  the  Merwin  brothers.  Doubt¬ 
less  the  fragmentary  condition  of  the  skeletons  is  due  to  the  shal¬ 
lowness  of  the  graves  and  the  fact  that  the  site  is  heavily  timbered 
with  large  trees  that  for  the  most  part  have  grown  up  since  the 
period  of  occupation. 


122 


INDIAN  VILLAGE  SITE  AND  CEMETERY 


Femur. 


Measurements 


Length  Bicondylar 

Length 

Maximum 

Maximum 
diameter 
of  head 

Humero- 

femoral 

index 

No.  of 
cases 

mm. 

No.  of 
cases 

mm. 

No.  of 
cases 

mm. 

No.  of 
cases  Index 

Males 

Average:  right, paired.  . 

20 

444 

21 

449 

24 

47.2 

13 

71.69 

“  “  total..  .  . 

29 

448 

28 

453 

29 

47.4 

21 

71.56 

“  left,  paired .  . 

20 

447 

21 

451 

24 

46.7 

13 

70.61 

“  “  total..  .  . 

24 

447 

25 

451 

28 

46.7 

18 

70.60 

Minimum:  right . 

29 

405 

28 

412 

29 

43 

21 

69.90 

“  left  . 

24 

407 

25 

413 

28 

42 

18 

67.92 

Maximum:  right . 

29 

515 

•28 

522 

29 

52 

21 

74.40 

“  left  . 

24 

487 

25 

490 

28 

51 

18 

72.93 

Females 

Average:  right,  paired.  . 

14 

409 

14 

415 

16 

43.6 

5 

72.14 

“  “  total..  .  . 

18 

410 

18 

415 

19 

43.8 

12 

73.35 

“  left,  paired.  . 

14 

415 

14 

420 

16 

42.3 

5 

70.23 

“  “  total..  .  . 

19 

419 

19 

426 

21 

42.1 

9 

70.72 

Minimum:  right . 

18 

377 

18 

385 

19 

39 

12 

70,40 

“  left  . 

19 

390 

19 

395 

21 

39 

9 

68.06 

Maximum:  right . 

18 

446 

18 

448 

19 

47 

12 

76.65 

“  left . 

19 

454 

19 

457 

21 

45 

9 

73.34 

The  mean  bicondylar  length  of  male  Madisonville  femora  is 
447.5  mm.  which  corresponds  to  an  average  stature  of  a  little  less 
than  167  cm.  according  to  Manouvrier’s  tables.  If  we  calculate 
the  stature  from  the  maximum  length  of  the  femora  according  to 
Pearson’s  formula  (a),  the  average  stature  is  a  little  more  than 
166  cm. 

Similarly  the  average  stature  of  Madisonville  females,  according 
to  Manouvrier’s  tables,  is  a  little  more  than  155  cm.  and,  according 
to  Pearson’s  formula,  a  little  less  than  155  cm.  Hrdlicka  found  that 
the  stature  of  Munsee  males  was  approximately  167  cm.  and  of 
Munsee  females  156  cm.,  basing  his  computations  upon  the  mean 
bicondylar  length  of  femora. 

The  difference  between  the  bicondylar  and  maximum  length  of 
the  femur  averages  4.5  mm.  in  males  (taking  the  mean  of  both 
sides)  and  6  mm.  in  females.  These  differences  are  practically 
identical  with  those  in  the  lengths  of  Munsee  femora,  determined 
by  Dr.  Hrdlicka  (nearly  5  mm.  in  males  and  6  mm.  in  females). 
He  considers  this  unusual  disproportion  in  the  two  lengths  as  pos¬ 
sibly  due  to  an  unusual  breadth  of  pelvis,  a  greater  length  of  the 
femoral  neck,  or  a  more  than  usual  prevalence  of  the  habit  of 
squatting. 


NEAR  MADISONVILLE,  OHIO 


123 


The  maximum  diameter  of  the  femoral  head  in  males  averages 
47.4  mm.  in  rights  and  46.7  in  lefts.  In  the  case  of  females  the 
figures  are  43.8  for  right  femora  and  42.1  for  left  femora. 

±  xi6  humero-femoral  iiiqgx  bicondyiar  length  of  femur  )  averages 
in  males  71.56  on  the  right  side  and  70.6  on  the  left  side.  This  is 
slightly  below  the  average  for  Indians  given  by  Dr.  Hrdlicka  in  his 
exhaustive  study,  Physical  Anthropology  of  the  Lenape  p.  61,  (100 
Indians,  right  72.3;  left  71.6).  It  approximates  more  closely  to  the 
index  in  the  Munsee  (right  71.8;  left  71.7). 

The  index  in  females  is  a  little  higher  on  both  sides,  but  markedly 
higher  on  the  right  side  than  in  the  case  of  the  males. 


*  Subtrochanteric  Region  of  Shaft 


Number 

Diameter 
Minimum  (a) 
mm. 

Diameter 
Maximum  (6) 
mm. 

Platymeric  index 
(a)  X  100 
(5) 

Males 

Average:  right,  paiifed.. 

.  .  26 

25.7 

33.5 

77.08 

“  “  total.  . . 

.  .  32 

25.8 

33.6 

77.16 

“  left,  paired. . 

.  .  26 

26.0 

34.0 

76.72 

‘  “  total .  . . 

.  .  28 

26.0 

34.0 

76.72 

Minimum:  right . 

.  .  32 

21.5 

29 

65.71 

“  left  . 

.  .  28 

22 

30 

63.89 

Maximum:  right . 

.  .  32 

32 

39. 

94.12 

“  left  . 

.  .  28 

33 

39 

90.91 

Females 

Average:  right,  paired. . . 

.  .  20 

22.7 

31.3 

72.62 

“  total .  . . 

.  .  22 

22.6 

31.2 

72.84 

“  left,  paired. . . 

.  .  20 

23.3 

30.9 

75.50 

l<  “  total... 

.  .  23 

23.5 

30.9 

76.15 

Minimum:  right . 

.  .  22 

20 

28.5 

61.76 

“  left  . 

.  .  23 

19 

27 

62.86 

Maximum:  right . . . 

.  .  22 

28 

34 

83.33 

“  left  . 

.  .  23 

28 

35 

87.50 

From  an  inspection  of  the  table  given  above  it  may  be  seen  that 


a  moderate  degree  of  subtrochanteric  flattening  or  platymeria  is 
exhibited  in  the  femora  of  Madisonville  males,  and  that  this  flat¬ 
tening  is  slightly  more  pronounced  in  the  left  femora  than  in  the 
right,  although  the  absolute  diameters  of  the  left  femora  at  this 


region  are  greater.  This  is  usual  in  most  racial  groups. 

In  the  case  of  the  females  the  flattening  is  more  pronounced  on 
both  sides  than  in  the  males,  as  is  usually  the  case,  but  the  right 
femora  of  females  are  more  flattened  than  the  left.  This  is  due  to  an 


increase  in  the  minimum  diameters  and  a  decrease  in  the  maximum 
diameters  of  the  left  femora  as  compared  with  the  right.  This  is 


124 


INDIAN  VILLAGE  SITE  AND  CEMETERY 


an  unusual  and  puzzling  sex  difference.  It  may  be  a  chance  error 
due  to  the  shortness  of  our  female  series,  but  it  is  more  probably 
of  some  functional  significance.  What  this  may  be  the  writer  is 
unable  to  say. 

Platymeria  is  much  less  pronounced  in  the  Madisonville  group 
than  in  the  Munsee  group  studied  by  Dr.  Hrdlicka,  in  which  the 
indices  for  males  are  73.3  and  71.6  for  the  right  and  left  sides  re¬ 
spectively,  and  for  the  females  75.5  and  71.7. 


Middle  of  Shaft 


Number 

Diameter 

Antero-posterior  (c) 
mm. 

Diameter 
Lateral  ( d ) 
mm. 

Middle  index 
(d)  X  100 
(c) 

Males 

Average:  right,  paired. . 

.  .  23 

29.2 

26.8 

92.16 

“  “  total.  . . 

.  .  27 

29.7 

26.7 

90.43 

“  left,  paired. . 

.  .  23 

30.1 

26.9 

89.25 

“  “  total.  . . 

.  .  28 

30.1 

27.0 

89.79 

Minimum:  right . 

.  .  27 

24 

22.5 

76.47 

“  left  . 

.  .  28 

24 

22 

78.13 

Maximum:  right . 

.  .  27 

35 

30 

111.54 

“  left . 

.  .  28 

35 

30 

100.0 

Females 

Average:  right,  paired. . 

.  .  20 

24.8 

23.3 

94.05 

“  “  total.  . . 

.  .  23 

24.8 

23.4 

94.41 

“  left,  paired. . 

.  .  20 

26.0 

24. S 

95.70 

“  “  total.  . . 

.  .  22 

26.3 

25.0 

95.45 

Minimum:  right . 

.  .  23 

22 

22 

82.14 

“  left  . 

22 

23 

22 

82.76 

Maximum:  right . 

.  .  23 

28 

26.5 

104.17 

“  left  . 

.  .  23 

29 

28 

112.50 

From  the  above  table  it  may  be  seen  that  in  both  males  and  fe¬ 
males  of  the  Madisonville  group  the  diameters  at  the  middle  of 
the  shaft  show  that  the  left  femora  are  stronger  than  the  right. 
But  the  middle  index  is  higher  on  the  right 

side  in  males  and  on  the  left  side  in  females.  In  the  Munsee  group 
studied  by  Hrdlicka  the  shaft  index  is  higher  on  the  left  side  in  both 
sexes.  In  both  males  and  females,  and  upon  both  sides,  the  shaft 
index  is  higher  in  the  Madisonville  group  than  in  the  Munsee  group. 


Mean  Diameter  of  Femur  at  Middle  of  Shaft 

Madisonville  Munsee  (Hrdlicka) 


mm.  mm. 

Males:  right .  28.2  27.3 

“  left .  28.5  27.5 

Females:  right .  24.1  24.6 

“  left . 25.6  24.3 


NEAR  MADISONVILLE,  OHIO 


125 


The  Madisonville  males  exceed  the  Munsee  males  in  mean  di¬ 
ameter  of  the  femur  at  the  middle  of  the  shaft,  but  in  the  case  of 
the  females  the  Munsee  femora  show  larger  diameters  for  the 
right  side  but  smaller  for  the  left  side. 


Observations 

ON  THE 

Femur.  Linea  Aspera 

Number  of  Submedium 

Medium 

Pronounced 

Subjects 

bones 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Males.  .  .  . 

.  27 

47 

34.04 

29.78 

36.17 

Females.  . 

.  20 

34 

58.82 

35.29 

5.88 

The  linea  aspera  in  this  series  is  not  as  well  developed  as  in  many 
Indians.  The  sexual  differences  according  to  observation  are  given 
in  the  preceding  table.  On  the  whole  the  muscular  development 
seems  to  have  been  good,  but  not  excessive. 

The  shape  of  the  shaft  is  prevailingly  prismatic,  or  approxi¬ 
mately  so,  but  elliptical  and  plano-convex  types  occur,  as  well  as 
many  intermediate  forms. 

The  third  trochanter  occurs  as  a  rounded  tuberosity  in  10.6  per 
cent  of  males  and  in  12.5  per  cent  of  females.  The  ridge  form,  or 
Crista  hypotrochanterica,  is  much  more  common,  while  a  well  de¬ 
veloped  depression  or  Fossa  hypotrochanterica  was  observed  in 
two  cases  only.  When  the  third  trochanter  appears  as  a  round 
tuberosity  it  is  often  associated  with  a  slight  development  of  the 
linea  aspera  and  a  pronounced  torsion. 

The  present  writer  made  no  measurements  of  femoral  torsion,  but 
Dr.  W.  C.  Farabee  has  generously  placed  at  his  disposal  the  results 
of  an  unpublished  investigation  made  by  him  upon  the  Madison¬ 
ville  femora.  The  mean  angles  of  torsion  for  37  pairs  of  Madison¬ 
ville  femora  are,  left,  12.3;  right,  26.9.  Dr.  Farabee  writes: 

The  angle  of  torsion  is  much  less  on  the  left  than  on  the  right.  All  the  nega¬ 
tive  angles  (eight)  are  on  the  left,  and  the  angles  on  the  right  are  large.  In  37 
pairs  the  angle  is  larger  on  the  left  in  7  cases  only. 


126 


INDIAN  VILLAGE  SITE  AND  CEMETERY 


Tibiae. 


Number  of 
cases 

Length 
(minus  spine) 
mm. 

Number  of 
cases 

Tibio-femoral  i 
T  X  100 
F 

Males 

Average:  right,  paired. 

..  .  15 

375.0 

8 

83.41 

“  “  total .  . 

.  .  .  19 

374.7 

12 

83.08 

“  left,  paired . 

..  .  15 

377.2 

8 

82.83 

“  “  total .  . 

.  .  .  24 

378.2 

15 

83.43 

Minimum:  right . 

..  .  19 

343 

12 

79.23 

“  left  . 

..  .  24 

347 

19 

81.31 

Maximum:  right . 

.  .  .  19 

417 

12 

85.10 

“  left  . 

.  .  .  24 

431 

19 

86.98 

Females 

Average:  right,  paired. 

..  .  12 

349.9 

8 

84.46 

*  “  total .  . 

.  .  .  14 

347.5 

11 

84.20 

“  left,  paired . 

..  .  12 

350.2 

8 

83.33 

“  “  total .  . 

.  ,  .  10 

347 

11 

82.75 

Minimum:  right . 

. .  .  14 

325 

11 

81.75 

“  left . 

. .  .  1G 

329 

11 

79.46 

Maximum:  right . 

.  .  .  14 

37G 

11 

87.61 

“  left  . 

.  .  .  1G 

375. 

11 

86.22 

The  mean  length  of  male  tibiae  of  both  sides  is  376.4  mm.  and 
of  females  347.2  mm.  The  mean  length  of  female  bones  is  94.8 
per  cent  of  male  bones,  which  is  about  the  same  as  the  ratio  in  mis¬ 
cellaneous  New  York  Whites  according  to  Hrdlicka  (94.6),  and 
somewhat  higher  than  that  of  Louisiana  tibiae  (93.7),  and  Munsee 
tibiae  (91.7). 

The  tibio-femoral  index  is  somewhat  higher  than  that  in  Whites 
(approximately  82,  according  to  Hrdlicka).  It  is  higher  on  the 
right  side  than  on  the  left  in  both  sexes  and  whereas  it  is  lower  in 
the  females  of  most  racial  groups,  in  the  Madisonville  series  the 
females  have  a  slightly  higher  index  on  the  right  side  than  the 
males,  and  a  lower  index  on  the  left  side.  The  series,  however,  is 
very  short. 


NEAR  MADISONVILLE,  OHIO 


127 


Middle  shaft  diameters 

Middle 

Level  of  nutrient  foramen 

Antero 

index 

Antero- 

Index 

Cases 

posterior  Lateral 

(6)  X  100 

Cases  posterior 

Lateral 

(d)X10 

(a) 

( b ) 

(a) 

(c) 

(d) 

(c) 

Males 

Average:  right,  paired  26 

33.0 

23.3 

70.91 

32 

37.1 

24.0 

64.85 

“  “  total 

30 

32.7 

23.3 

71.62 

35 

37.0 

24.2 

65.50 

“  left,  paired  26 

34.1 

23.0 

68.83 

32 

37.0 

24.1 

65.30 

“  “  total 

32 

33.5 

23  1 

69.55 

35 

37.3 

24.2 

65.09 

Minimum:  right .... 

30 

26 

18 

60.00 

35 

30 

19 

53.41 

“  left . 

32 

27 

18 

57.14 

35 

30 

20 

50.00 

Maximum:  light. .  .  . 

30 

39 

28 

86.21 

35 

44 

29 

78.79 

“  left  . 

32 

43 

28 

92.86 

35 

46 

29 

78.79 

Females 

Average:  right,  paired  15 

27.6 

20.8 

75.58 

16 

30.6 

22.0 

71.95 

u  “  total 

19 

27.5 

20.8 

75.70 

20 

30.6 

22.0 

72.13 

“  left,  paired 

15 

27.6 

20.3 

74.17 

16 

30.9 

21.6 

70.01 

■  “  total 

17 

27.5 

20.3 

74.17 

19 

30.8 

21.4 

69.65 

Minimum:  right..  .  . 

19 

25 

19 

63.33 

20 

27 

19 

62.86 

“  left  .... 

17 

25 

18 

64.29 

19 

28 

18 

56.67 

Maximum:  right. .  .  . 

19 

30 

23 

88.46 

20 

35 

25 

85.19 

“  left  .... 

17 

29 

22 

88.00 

19 

35 

25 

80.65 

The  middle  index  of  the  tibiae  is  higher  in  females  than  in  males 
and  higher  in  both  sexes  on  the  right  side  than  on  the  left.  In  the 
preceding  table  have  been  included  also  diameters  and  indices 
taken  at  the  level  of  the  nutrient  foramen,  where  the  flattening  is 
at  its  maximum.  As  a  group  it  cannot  be  said  that  the  Madison- 
ville  Indians  exhibited  pronounced  platy enemy,  although  this  con¬ 
dition  is  found  to  a  very  marked  degree  in  some  individuals. 

In  51  left  tibiae,  Dr.  Farabee  found  an  average  torsion  of  18.7° 
with  a  range  of  from  5°  to  35°.  The  average  angle  of  torsion  of  64 
right  tibiae  is  18°,  with  a  range  from  5°  to  32°. 

Observations  on  Tibiae.  The  Madisonville  tibiae  include  a  rather 
large  number  which  show  inflammatory  lesions,  a  subject  which 
will  be  discussed  below.  Aside  from  this  there  are  few  anomalies. 
The  retroversion  of  the  head  is  moderate  or  absent  in  most  of  the 
cases.  Only  two  bones  exhibited  convexity  of  the  lateral  condyle. 
Two  individuals  had  the  so-called  “boomerang  tibiae”  probably 
or  possibly  due  to  rachitis.  Extensions  of  the  inferior  articular 
surface  above  the  anterior  tibial  border  (“squatting  facets”)  are 
quite  common. 

Shape  of  Shaft  at  Middle1 
1  2  3  4  5  6  Total  bones  Total  individuals 

Males:  per  cent  27.8  20.9  37.2  0  13.9  0  43  25 

Females:  per  cent  50.0  34.3  15.6  0  0  0  32  19 

1  1,  ordinary  prismatic;  2,  lateral  prismatic;  3,  external  surface  concave;  4,  posterior  sur¬ 
face  divided  into  two  by  vertical  ridge ;  5,  interior  border  indistinct,  posterior  half  of  bone 
oval;  6,  plano-convex.  (Classifications  of  Dr.  Hrdlicka.) 


128 


INDIAN  VILLAGE  SITE  AND  CEMETERY 


It  may  be  noted  that  type  3  (with  concave  external  surface)  is 
most  common  among  the  males,  and  type  1  (ordinary  prismatic) 
occurs  in  half  of  all  the  female  tibiae.  Types  4  and  6  were  not 
found  in  this  group.  These  observations  are  not  precisely  com¬ 
parable  with  those  of  Dr.  Hrdlicka  who  notes  a  seventh  type  of 
indefinite  shape  which  includes  35  per  cent  of  Munsee  tibiae  and 
45  per  cent  of  miscellaneous  Whites  and  United  States  Negroes. 
The  present  writer  has  assigned  all  bones  to  one  or  other  of  the 
six  primary  types,  finding  none  in  the  Madisonville  group  which 
did  not  conform  to  the  classification.  Possibly  a  personal  equation 
enters  into  the  difference  in  results,  but  it  is  notable  that  the 
Munsee  group  (both  sexes)  includes  20  per  cent  of  type  4  (more  or 
less  quadrilateral)  while  none  of  our  series  belong  to  this  type. 

Fibula.  The  number  of  fibulae  in  condition  fit  for  measurement 
was  so  small  that  conclusions  in  regard  to  size  cannot  reasonably 
be  made. 

Humerus. 

Length,  Maximum 

Right  Left 


Number 

mm. 

Number 

mm. 

Males 

Average :  paired . 

...  18 

317.2 

18 

314.2 

“  total . 

...  23 

317.7 

25 

316.2 

“  *  minimum . 

, . . .  23 

295 

25 

290 

“  maximum . 

.  . . .  23 

345 

25 

370 

Females 

Average :  paired . 

8 

302.1 

8 

296.8 

“  total . 

.  .  15 

303.7 

11 

295.6 

“  minimum . 

...  15 

289 

11 

275 

“  maximum . 

...  15 

323 

11 

322 

Maximum 

Diameter 

Articular 

Head 

Number 

Right 

mm. 

Left 

Number 

mm. 

Males 

Average :  paired . 

...  20 

45.9 

20 

45.2 

“  total . 

...  25 

46.2 

25 

44.9 

“  minimum . 

...  25 

41 

25 

40 

“  maximum . 

...  25 

51 

25 

50 

Females 

Average :  paired . 

...  13 

40.2 

13 

39.8 

“  total . 

...  18 

40.4 

13 

39.8 

“  minimum . 

.  .  18 

38 

13 

38 

“  maximum . 

...  18 

44 

13 

43 

NEAR  MADISONVILLE,  OHIO 


129 


In  both  males  and  females  the  right  humerus  is  longer  than  the 
left,  more  especially  so  in  the  females.  In  both  sexes  the  lengths 
are  somewhat  shorter  than  those  of  the  Munsee  Indians.  The 
mean  length  of  paired  female  humeri  in  relation  to  paired  male 
humeri  is  as  94.8  to  100,  a  very  high  ratio,  which  is  comparable  to 
that  found  by  Hrdlicka  in  the  Munsee  (94.2)  and  in  the  American 
Negro  (94.6).  In  Indians  in  general  it  averages  91.2  according  to 
the  same  author.  The  possibility  of  an  error  in  sexing  the  humeri 
is  to  be  considered  in  this  connection,  but,  in  general,  sexual  differ¬ 
ences  in  the  bones  are  well  marked  and  identification  of  sex  was 
not  based  upon  one  bone  only,  but  upon  all  skeletal  parts  present. 
Only  adult  humeri  were  measured. 

A  well  defined  sexual  difference  occurs  in  the  maximum  (verti¬ 
cal)  diameter  of  the  superior  articular  surface.  In  both  sexes  this 
diameter  is  somewhat  larger  on  the  right  side  than  on  the  left. 

Perforation  of  the  septum  between  the  olecranon  and  coronoid 
fossae  of  the  humerus  occurs  in  but  3  of  57  male  bones  or  5.7  per 
cent,  and  in  15  of  39  female  bones  or  38.4  per  cent. 

There  is  no  instance  of  the  occurrence  of  a  supracondyloid  proc¬ 
ess  or  foramen. 

Radius. 

Length,  Maximum  Radio-humeral  Index 

r  x  100 

H 

Right  Left  Right  Left 


Number 

mm. 

Number 

mm. 

Cases 

Index 

Cases 

Index 

Males 

Average:  total 

8 

243.6 

11 

242.1 

7 

77.85 

11 

77.18 

Females 

Average:  total 

6 

236.4 

6 

234.6 

5 

77.73 

3 

79.17 

The  total  number  of  radii  available  for  measurement  is  19  in 
the  males  and  12  in  the  females.  In  both  sexes  the  right  radius  is 
somewhat  longer,  but  too  much  confidence  should  not  be  placed 
in  the  figures  given  above,  for  the  radii  are  almost  all  odd  and  not 
paired. 

In  the  few  cases  in  which  the  radio-humeral  index  could  be  cal¬ 
culated  the  results  agree  fairly  well  with  those  given  by  Dr. 
Hrdlicka  as  characteristic  of  Indians  in  general  (approximately  78 
on  both  sides  for  males  and  77  on  both  sides  for  females).  The 
excess  in  the  humero-radial  index  on  the  left  side  in  the  females 
is  probably  due  to  the  insufficient  number  of  cases. 


130  INDIAN  VILLAGE  SITE  AND  CEMETERY 

There  is  nothing  exceptional  in  the  features  of  the  radii  of  this 
series. 

Ulna.  Of  the  male  bones,  6  right  ulna  yielded  an  average  of 
267.1  mm.  for  maximum  length,  while  8  left  ulna  averaged  258  mm. 
These  were  not  paired  bones.  1  n  the  case  of  the  females  the  aver¬ 
ages  are  247.8  mm.  for  5  right  ulna,  and  254.6  mm.  for  3  left  ulna. 
Nothing  noteworthy  was  observed  in  respect  to  the  ulna. 

Pelvis.  In  this  collection  the  bones  of  the  pelvis  are  almost 
without  exception  fragmentary.  But  one  pelvis,  that  of  a  female, 
was  available  for  measurement.  This  is  a  very  broad  and  capacious 
pelvis,  the  measurements  of  which  are  given  below. 

Pelvis  as  a  Whole 

Mean  height  of  Breadth,  maximum,  Pelvic  index 

ossa  innominata  (a)  of  pelvis  ( b )  (a)  X  100 

Number  mm.  mm.  .  b 

Female .  1  205  288  71.18 


Supehior  Strait 

Breadth  Diameter 

Maximum  Anteroposterior 

(c)  {d) 

143  122 


Brim  index 
(d)  X  100 
(c) 

85.31 


The  pelvic  index  is  very  low  in  this  specimen  and  the  brim  index 
is  very,high.  Altogether  this  is  an  except  ion  ally  large  pelvis,  and 
consequently  should  not  be  taken  as  representative  of  the  group. 

Observations  on  many  fragmentary  pelves  show  that  the  usual 
pelvic  characters  with  their  normal  sexual  differentia  prevail.  The 
female  pelves  have  wider  great  sciatic  notches,  greater  sub-pubic 
angles,  and  the  ascending  rami  of  the  pubic  bones  are  less  massive 
than  in  the  males.  The  so-called  pre-auricular  sulcus  is  decidedly 
an  unsafe  criterion  of  sex  in  this  series,  being  well-marked  in  many 
obviously  male  pelves  and  indistinct  in  many  female  pelves. 

The  total  number  of  sacra  available  for  measurement  was  7, 
which  seems  too  small  a  number  upon  which  to  base  any  conclu¬ 
sions. 

Pathology.  The  following  is  a  summary  of  pathological  condi¬ 
tions  observed  in  the  bones  apart  from  the  skull.  These  pathologi¬ 
cal  conditions  were  confined  to  the  bones  of  adults  and  one  adoles¬ 
cent. 

Spine  (total  number  of  adult  subjects,  90).  Slight  to  pronounced 
arthritic  exostoses  were  observed  on  the  vertebra  of  17  individuals,. 


NEAR  MADISONVILLE,  OHIO 


131 


or  18.8  per  cent  of  all  the  adult  skeletons  examined  including  those 
in  which  the  vertebrae  were  not  preserved. 

In  one  male  skeleton  in  addition  (No.  57561)  several  of  the  cer¬ 
vical  vertebrae  appear  to  be  carious. 

Pelvic  Bones.  Signs  of  arthritis  were  observed  about  the  aceta- 
bula  of  6  subjects.  In  addition  the  right  sacro-iliac  articulation  of 
No.  57640,  an  adult  female,  exhibits  an  inflammatory  condition, 
involving  considerable  destruction  of  bone.  No.  57625,  a  fragmen¬ 
tary  skeleton,  probably  female,  shows  arthritic  exostoses  in  the 
region  of  the  pubic  symphysis,  and  No.  57634,  a  male,  has  exostoses 
on  the  right  ilium  in  the  region  of  the  anterior  superior  iliac  spine. 
Altogether  the  pelves  of  8  subjects  or  8.8  per  cent  of  all  adult 
skeletons  examined,  including  those  in  which  the  pelvic  bones  were 
not  preserved,  show  signs  of  arthritic  changes.  In  addition  the 
sacrum  of  No.  58460,  a  young  adult  female,  shows  slight  traces 
of  periostitis. 

Humeri.  In  two  subjects  the  humeri  show  signs  of  moderate 
osteoperiostitis.  In  two  other  subjects  the  humeri  show  signs  of 
arthritic  changes. 

Radii.  Moderate  osteoperiostitis  was  observed  in  three  cases, 
both  sides  being  affected  in  two  of  the  subjects. 

Ulnae.  In  No.  26592,  a  male,  the  left  ulna  presents  a  healed 
fracture,  with  little  displacement  and  no  signs  of  inflammation. 
In  No.  57506,  a  male,  both  ulnae  show  signs  of  arthritis.  Three 
other  subjects  show  moderate  to  pronounced  osteoperiostitis  af¬ 
fecting  both  ulnae  in  two  instances.  In  the  third  only  the  right 
ulna  is  preserved  and  the  disease  has  affected  the  distal  half  of  the 
bone. 

Femora.  Seven  subjects  show  pathological  changes  in  the  femora. 
The  left  bone  of  No.  57506,  a  male,  has  a  moderate  “  mushroom 
head.”  Both  femora  of  Numbers  58371,  57636  (a),  and  57571,  all 
males,  show  signs  of  arthritis.  In  three  other  subjects  moderate 
osteoperiostitis  has  affected  the  distal  halves  of  the  femora. 

Tibiae.  Thirteen  subjects,  or  13.1  per  cent  of  all  the  adult  and 
adolescent  skeletons  examined,  exhibit  pathological  features  in  the 
tibiae. 

Pronounced  curvatures,  probably  due  to  a  mild  form  of  rachitis, 
occur  in  four  subjects.  In  nine  individuals  inflammatory  changes 
have  taken  place  in  the  tibial  shafts,  ranging  from  slight  localized 
periostitis  to  extensive  osteoperiostitis  affecting  the  entire  shaft. 


132 


INDIAN  VILLAGE  SITE  AND  CEMETERY 


In  No.  58371,  a  male,  the  left  tibia  shows  a  healed  fracture  ac¬ 
companied  by  considerable  inflammation  affecting  the  distal  por¬ 
tion  of  the  shaft  of  the  tibia,  the  astragalus,  and  the  calcaneum. 

Bones  of  the  Foot.  Except  in  the  case  noted  just  above,  no  patho¬ 
logical  conditions  were  observed  in  the  bones  of  the  feet  included 
in  this  series. 

General  Remarks  on  Pathology  of  the  Bones.  In  connection  with 
the  above  notes  on  the  pathology  of  the  bones  in  the  Madison- 
ville  series,  it  is  instructive  to  compare  the  results  of  Langdon’s 
examination  of  662  skeletons  exhumed  during  the  early  years  of 
excavation  in  the  Madisonville  site.  (Langdon,  op.  cit.,  p.  247 
et  seq.)  That  author  figures  a  spinal  column  in  which 

the  spinous  and  articular  processes  of  all  the  lumbar  and  dorsal  vertebrae 
are  fused,  while  the  bodies  remain  free,  with  the  exception  of  two  in  the  lumbar 
region  which  are  connected  only  by  a  thin  band  of  osseous  tissue.  Several  of 
the  carpal  and  metacarpal  bones  are  also  united  into  a  solid  bony  mass,  and 
the  atlas  is  connected  with  the  skull  in  a  similar  manner.  .  .  .  The  axis  and 
the  third  cervical  vertebra  are  also  united  by  the  coalescence  of  their  bodies 
as  well  as  of  their  transverse,  articular,  and  spinous  processes.  The  heads  of 
the  ribs  are  likewise  ankylosed  with  the  bodies  of  the  vertebrae  and  their  tu¬ 
berosities  with  the  transverse  processes.  (Op.  cit.,  p.  249.) 

He  ascribed  this  condition  to  arthritis  deformans. 

Langdon  also  mentions 

Arthritis  involving  a  right  shoulder  joint,  with  flattening,  enlargement  and 
eburnation  of  the  head  of  the  humerus  and  glenoid  fossa.  (Op.  cit.,  p.  253.) 

The  same  author  states  that  the  pathological  features  presented 
by  the  tibiae  include 

Evidences  of  periostitis,  osteitis,  and  osteo-myelitis,  in  varied  combination; 
as  well  as  exostosis,  and  an  obscure  form  of  rarefaction.  (Op.  cit.,  p.  256.) 

In  one  specimen  figured  by  him  (fig.  14)  he  says: 

The  evidences  of  ulceration  about  the  lower  half  of  this  bone  are  somewhat 
suggestive  of  syphilitic  lesions  which  supposition  is  further  strengthened  by 
the  bilateral  character  of  the  disease  and  the  presence  of  several  nodular  ex¬ 
crescences  distributed  along  the  crest  of  the  bone. 

The  suspicion  as  to  existence  of  syphilitic  lesions  in  the  bones  of 
this  series  arose  in  the  mind  of  the  present  writer  before  he  had 
referred  to  Langdon’s  report,  and  it  was  precisely  the  frequency 


NEAR  MADISONVILLE,  OHIO 


133 


of  serious  bilateral  inflammatory  conditions  in  the  tibiae  that  oc¬ 
casioned  such  suspicion.  Probably  these  conditions  were  brought 
about  by  syphilis,  but  it  is  extremely  difficult  to  distinguish  be¬ 
tween  bone  lesions  due  to  that  disease  and  those  that  result  from 
the  systemic  conditions  which  prevail  in  osteoarthritis.  On  the 
whole  the  author  does  not  feel  qualified  to  make  a  positive  decision 
in  this  matter  on  the  basis  of  the  evidence. 

Arthritis  and  arthritis  deformans  were  present,  as  were  also 
periostitis  and  osteoperiostitis.  Rachitis  seems  also  to  have  been 
present  in  a  mild  form,  although  the  only  bones  which  showed  it 
were  tibiae.  There  is  the  possibility  of  a  tuberculous  condition  in  the 
spine  of  one  individual,  but  here,  again,  the  condition  may  be 
simply  arthritic. 

Fractures  and  injuries  of  the  bones  are  rare,  except  in  the  skulls, 
of  which  the  pathological  and  traumatic  features  have  been  dis¬ 
cussed  above. 

General  Summary  of  Observations.  The  characters  of  the 
Madisonville  crania  examined  have  been  summarized  above  in 
some  detail.  In  general  they  are  three-fourths  brachy cephalic  and 
the  rest  mesocephalic,  with  the  exception  of  two  dolichocephalic 
specimens.  The  height  of  the  skull  vault  is  somewhat  low,  but  the 
cranial  capacity  is  well  up  to  the  average  for  Indians.  The  faces 
are  broad  and  very  short,  the  orbits,  low  and  broad,  the  nasal 
apertures  prevailingly  platyrrhine,  with  poorly  developed  nasal 
spine  and  indistinct  lower  borders.  There  is  little  prognathism, 
and  the  jaws  are  short  and  broad.  The  mandibles  are  somewhat 
deficient  in  symphyseal  height. 

The  femora  indicate  a  stature  of  about  167  cm.  for  males  and 
155  cm.  for  females,  which  is  a  little  above  average  for  Indians  but 
not  tall.  The  long  bones  do  not  indicate  especially  pronounced 
muscular  development,  but  about  average  for  Indians.  The  limb 
proportions  approximate  to  those  generally  observed  in  American 
Indians.  Platymeria  and  platycnemia  are  not  pronounced  except 
in  individual  cases. 

The  Madisonville  crania  are  less  strong  and  rugged  than  those 
of  the  Tennessee  Stone  Grave  group  and  differ  from  them  in  many 
respects,  but  particularly  in  lessened  height  of  the  cranial  vault, 
of  the  face,  and  of  the  mandible,  in  our  series.  The  Tennessee 
group  also  contains  a  large  majority  of  brachycephals.  There  is 


134 


INDIAN  VILLAGE  SITE  AND  CEMETERY 


little  doubt  that  the  Madisonville  site  was  inhabited  by  a  people 
in  whom  a  preponderance  of  physical  characters  belonging  to  the 
southern  and  eastern  brachy cephalic  group  of  Indians  was  united 
with  an  admixture  of  modified  characters  originating  in  the  eastern 
dolichocephalic  group.  This  group  seems  to  have  been  the  result 
of  long  contact  rather  than  a  primary  mixture.  Probably  its 
physical  affinities  with  groups,  as  yet  unstudied,  in  Ohio  and 
Indiana,  are  closer  than  with  the  Tennessee  Stone  Grave  group, 
or  with  the  Iroquois  and  other  eastern  groups. 


CONCLUSION 


By  Charles  C.  Willoughby 

Period  of  Occupation  of  the  Madisonville  Site.  It  is  evident 
from  the  foregoing  pages  that  the  occupation  of  this  site  covered  an 
interval  immediately  preceding  the  first  intercourse  of  the  Indians 
of  the  region  with  Europeans,  and  extended  into  the  protohistoric 
period,  at  which  time  the  inhabitants  were  able  to  secure  a  small 
amount  of  European  iron,  brass  and  copper,  together  with  a  few 
glass  beads,  either  directly  from  the  early  missionaries  or  traders, 
or  indirectly  through  their  Indian  neighbors. 

That  these  later  inhabitants  were  of  the  same  group  as  the  earlier 
dwellers  upon  the  site  is  evident  from  the  finding  of  a  cross  and 
other  trinkets  of  brass  in  a  grave  containing  also  a  pottery  vessel 
of  a  type  common  throughout  this  cemetery.  The  site,  however, 
appears  to  have  been  abandoned  long  before  the  arrival  of  European 
settlers  in  the  Ohio  Valley. 

Relation  of  the  Madisonville  Culture  to  that  of  the  Surrounding 
Tribes.  The  Madisonville  culture  in  prehistoric  times  extended 
over  a  considerable  portion  of  southern  Ohio.  This  is  shown  by  the 
work  of  Mr.  Mills  of  the  Ohio  State  Archaeological  Society,  in 
Warren,  Scioto  and  Ross  Counties,1  and  by  the  explorations  of  the 
Peabody  Museum  in  Hamilton  County,  but  these  sites  were  ap¬ 
parently  abandoned  at  an  earlier  date  than  the  one  at  Madison¬ 
ville,  for  so  far  as  the  present  writer  has  been  able  to  learn  no 
objects  of  European  origin  have  been  found  associated  with  the 
burials  or  cache-pits  in  any  of  them.  This  seems  to  indicate  a 
southern  migration  of  the  northern  outposts  of  these  Indians  to 
the  Ohio  River  not  later  than  the  first  part  of  the  Seventeenth 
Century,  perhaps  before  the  Miami  took  possession  of  this  country. 
They  were  probably  driven  southward  by  the  Iroquois. 

1  W.  C.  Mills,  The  Gartner  Mound  and  Village  Site;  The  Baum  Village  Site ;  The  FeurtMounds 
and  Village  Site;  Papers  of  the  Ohio  State  Archaeological  Society,  Columbus,  Ohio. 


135 


136 


INDIAN  VILLAGE  SITE  AND  CEMETERY 


In  all  treaty  negotiations  of  the  early  settlers,  the  Miami  were 
considered  the  original  owners  of  the  Wabash  country  in  Indiana, 
and  all  of  western  Ohio,  while  the  other  tribes  were  regarded  by 
them  as  tenants  or  intruders  on  their  lands.1  The  Miami  gave 
their  name  to  the  two  principal  rivers  in  southwestern  Ohio.  Mr. 
Mooney  also  states  that 

In  1684,  the  Iroquois  justified  their  attack  on  the  Miami  by  asserting  that 
the  latter  had  invited  the  Santanas  (Shawnee)  into  their  country  to  make  war 
upon  the  Iroquois.  This  is  the  first  historic  mention  of  the  Shawnee  ...  in 
the  country  north  of  the  Ohio  River.2 

With  our  present  knowledge  of  the  material  culture  of  the  proto- 
historic  Miami  and  Shawnee  we  are  not  warranted  in  assuming 
definitely  that  members  of  either  of  these  tribes  were  the  makers  of 
the  artifacts  found  upon  this  site,  or  that  their  dead  were  buried 
here. 

A  few  burial  mounds  were  apparently  built  by  the  Indians  of  the 
Madisonville  culture,  as  seems  evident  from  the  explorations  of 
Mr.  Mills  at  the  Gartner  and  Feurt  sites.  It  is  possible  that  some 
of  the  mounds,  formerly  standing  near  the  house  circles  and  just 
outside  the  area  shown  on  our  plan  (plate  30),  which  were  exca¬ 
vated  by  Dr.  Metz  before  the  discovery  of  the  cemetery,  were  the 
work  of  these  Indians.  It  should  be  understood,  however,  that 
the  people  of  the  Madisonville  culture  undoubtedly  belonged  to 
a  different  group  and  were  of  a  later  period  than  the  builders  of 
the  great  earthworks  of  southern  Ohio. 

The  few  house  circles  at  Madisonville  were  to  the  northeast  of 
the  cemetery.  They  were  much  larger  than  the  hut  sites  found  by 
Mr.  Mills  in  the  localities  before  mentioned.  Those  reported  by 
him  were  mostly  circular,  without  rings,  and  of  a  size  and  form 
corresponding  to  the  houses  in  common  use  among  the  Algon- 
quian  tribes  of  the  Great  Lakes  region  within  historic  times,  while 
those  at  Madisonville  were  forty  to  sixty  feet  in  diameter,  measur¬ 
ing  from  their  outer  edges,  and  more  nearly  approach  the  larger 
house  circles  of  the  Tennessee  region  to  the  south. 

The  few  artifacts  found  during  the  investigations  of  these  circles 
were  in  general  of  types  corresponding  to  those  of  the  main  village. 

1  James  Mooney  and  Cyrus  Thomas,  Bulletin  30,  vol.  i,  p.  853,  Bureau  of  American  Eth¬ 
nology. 

2  James  Mooney,  ibid.,  vol.  ii,  p.  534. 


NEAR  MADISONVILLE,  OHIO 


137 


It  is  possible,  however,  that  these  circles  antedate  the  occupation 
by  the  people  under  consideration,  and  that  the  artifacts  were  the 
result  of  the  later  occupation  of  the  ground.  The  absence  of  such 
circles  on  the  main  site,  where,  as  indicated  by  the  cache-pits,  most 
of  the  cabins  stood,  would  seem  to  point  to  this  conclusion,  but  the 
data  relating  to  the  subject  are  too  meager  to  warrant  definite 
deductions. 

Speaking  broadly,  there  is  much  to  indicate  that  the  more  dis¬ 
tinctive  artifacts  of  the  Madisonville  and  other  similar  sites  of 
southern  Ohio  are  in  general  more  closely  related  to  a  group  from 
an  area  some  five  or  six  hundred  miles  in  diameter,  having  its  center 
in  northern  Kentucky,  than  to  those  outside  this  region.  So  far  as 
we  know,  tribes  of  the  Algonquian  stock  held  nearly  all  of  this  area 
.  at  the  time  of  the  latest  occupation  of  this  site,  but  further  archaeo¬ 
logical  investigations  in  the  neighboring  states  of  Indiana  and 
Kentucky  are  necessary  before  definite  conclusions  can  be  drawn 
as  to  which  branch  of  this  stock  probably  dwelt  at  Madisonville. 

Physical  Relation  of  the  Inhabitants  to  the  Neighboring  People. 
Unfortunately  there  is  little  osteological  material  available  from 
the  two  states  above  mentioned  for  comparison  with  that  of 
Madisonville,  and  the  skeletal  remains  from  the  mounds  and 
graves  of  the  Great  Earthwork  Builders  of  Ohio  now  in  the  Museum 
have  not  been  systematically  studied. 

Certain  quite  marked  differences  between  the  Madisonville 
people  and  the  Stone  Grave  Indians  of  Tennessee  have,  however, 
been  pointed  out  by  Dr.  Hooton  (page  133),  whose  careful  work 
upon  the  physical  characteristics  of  these  two  groups  forms  a  sub¬ 
stantial  and  reliable  basis  for  future  comparative  studies  in  con¬ 
nection  with  human  remains  from  the  adjacent  regions. 


PRINTED  AT 

THE  HARVARD  UNIVERSITY  PRESS 
CAMBRIDGE,  MASS.,  U.  S.  A. 


Peabody  Museum  Papers. 


Vol.  VIII,  Plate  30 


^sjs#**®** 

AO''#'""' 


MlDO 


'/i  i ' 'm}'' 


7/M'  V!\\\AV 

'ill  ■  !  .  .  1 \ \ \\  ' 


SMStif"  . 


■S'a'V 


RIVE  R 


LITTLE  MIAMI 


,  |  /  /  \  1  /  1  1 

t\  v  a  \\  \W'\  j' 

■im///,  fvw//N\ ;  /);/ 

v  x  .  ,  ,  ,  ,\  1  /  /.  /  1  .  .  ,  I  /  /  ,\  '  M  V 1  /  7 

s\\ \w\\ '\\ )  \ 


\  V v  \\, 


\U\ 


FERRIS  PROPERTY 

ft  TRENCHES 


tfca> 


&%  e«.».  ^  1N  v  1  A*i 


so  '  IJI 


,**'  i* 


^  ,  <  .  ^.«\\\\^  A 


i\\\> 


V 


\  \  I  I  I  \  I  i\  \  '  1 1  I  .  \W  \\\w 

/I  j  \\  l  '  \'  ;  ||\\lH'V^ 

/,  !  *  \  ..ill1  ,\V  I1..'.  hlA'jft- 


HOUSE  CIRCLES 


STITES  PROPERTY 


3  if  '  AiWn  Z',. 

L  /£>?  -  v#, 

.,  *  1  * . » *  f  -  s'  '  '•-•  i 


jsvwii  il^x 
£  p  //  i/|\V 


INDIAN  VILLA6E  SITE 
AND  CEMETERY 
near  MADISONVILLE  OHIO 

SHOWING  EXPLORATIONS  of  1873*1911 


& CALC  >H  EIET 


I-V  Peabody  Museum  Explorations,  1897,  J.  R.  Swanton,  Field  Director 
A-C  “  “  “  1907,  R-  E.  Merwin,  “  “ 

D-F  “  “  “  1908,  “  “  “  “  “ 

G-K  “  “  “  1911,  B.  W.  Merwin,  “  “ 

L  “  “  “  1882,  F.  W.  Putnam,  “  “ 

M  Dept.  Anthropology  Exp.,  1891,  World’s  Columbian  Exposition, 

C.  L.  Metz,  Field  Director 

N  Madisonville  Literary  and  Historical  Society,  Cincinnati  Hist. 

Soc.  and  Peabody  Museum  Explorations;  1S80, 

C.  L.  Metz,  Field  Director 

O  Madisonville  Literary  and  Historical  Society,  1879, 

C.  L.  Metz,  Field  Director 


1-4  House  Sites 


P  Trial  Trenches,  18S2 

Owing  to  the  small  scale  of  this  plan,  some  of  the  minor 
burial  smaller  cache-pits,  post-holes,  etc.,  are  om.tted,  to  add 
clearness  to  the  grouping  of  the  more  .mportant  interments 

an<1  Detail  Plans  on  a  larger  scale  are  given  on  plates  1  and  2 
ortions  of  Trenches  II  and  III  and  the  greater  part  Ot 
ot  P  h  D  The  positions  of  these  enlarged  areas  are  indicated 
plan  bv  rectangles  enclosed  by  broken  lines. 


PAPERS 


OF  THE 

PEABODY  MUSEUM  OF  AMERICAN  ARCHAEOLOGY 
AND  ETHNOLOGY,  HARVARD  UNIVERSITY 

Vol.  VIII.  —  No.  2 


BASKET-MAKER  CAVES 
OF  NORTHEASTERN  ARIZONA 

Report  on  the  Explorations,  1916-17 


BY 

SAMUEL  JAMES  GUERNSEY 

AND 

ALFRED  VINCENT  KIDDER 


FORTY-FOUR  PLATES  AND  SIXTEEN  ILLUSTRATIONS 
IN  THE  TEXT 


CAMBRIDGE,  MASSACHUSETTS,  U.  S.  A. 
PUBLISHED  BY  THE  MUSEUM 
1921 


PAPERS 


OF  THE 

PEABODY  MUSEUM  OF  AMERICAN  ARCHAEOLOGY 
AND  ETHNOLOGY,  HARVARD  UNIVERSITY 

Vol.  VIII. —  No.  2 


BASKET-MAKER  CAVES 
OF  NORTHEASTERN  ARIZONA 

Report  on  the  Explorations,  1916-17 


BY 

SAMUEL  JAMES  GUERNSEY 

AND 

ALFRED  VINCENT  KIDDER 


FORTY-FOUR  PLATES  AND  SIXTEEN  ILLUSTRATIONS 
IN  THE  TEXT 


CAMBRIDGE,  MASSACHUSETTS,  U.  S.  A. 
PUBLISHED  BY  THE  MUSEUM 
1921 


COPYRIGHT,  1921 

BY  THE  PEABODY  MUSEUM  OF  AMERICAN  ARCHAEOLOGY 
AND  ETHNOLOGY,  HARVARD  UNIVERSITY 


INTRODUCTION 


In  the  summer  of  1914  the  Peabody  Museum  of  Harvard  Uni¬ 
versity  sent  an  expedition  to  northeastern  Arizona  under  the  joint 
leadership  of  the  present  authors  for  the  purpose  of  studying  the 
relations  between  the  cliff-houses  of  that  district  and  those  of  the 
north  side  of  the  San  Juan  River.  In  the  course  of  this  trip,  evi¬ 
dence  was  found  of  the  presence  of  the  Basket-maker  culture.  This 
culture  had  hitherto  only  been  reported  from  a  single  rather  re¬ 
stricted  area  in  southeastern  Utah.1  Furthermore,  no  Basket- 
maker  remains  had  ever  been  taken  out  by  trained  investigators; 
so  that  the  claims,  put  forward  by  the  commercial  collectors  who 
discovered  and  named  the  culture,  that  it  was  a  distinct  one,  ante¬ 
dating  that  of  the  Cliff-dwellers,  had  been  received  by  archaeol¬ 
ogists  with  more  or  less  incredulity.  We  felt,  therefore,  that  the 
opportunity  for  studying  these  little  known  remains  in  a  region 
untouched  by  earlier  diggers,  was  one  which  should  not  be  neglected; 
all  our  subsequent  work  has  accordingly  been  directed  toward  the 
finding  and  excavation  of  Basket-maker  sites. 

In  1915  the  junior  author  regretfully  gave  up  field  work  in  this 
region  to  undertake  other  excavations,  and  the  expeditions  of  that 
and  the  following  years  were  conducted  by  Mr.  Guernsey.  The 
results  of  1914  and  1915  have  already  been  published,2  the  present 
report  deals  with  the  explorations  of  1916  and  1917;  at  the  close  of 
the  latter  season  field  work  was  temporarily  discontinued  because 
of  the  war.  In  each  year  the  expeditions  were  carried  on  under 
permits  granted  by  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior. 

The  Museum  wishes  to  make  grateful  acknowledgment  to  the  fol¬ 
lowing  persons  whose  generous  contributions,  supplementing  the 
Museum  appropriation,  served  greatly  to  enlarge  the  scope  of  the 
work:  Mrs.  S.  K.  Lothrop,  and  Messrs.  Bronson  Cutting,  Lawrence 
Grinnell,  F.  E.  Guernsey,  Augustus  Hemenway,  Henry  Horn- 

1  Pepper,  1902.  The  existence  of  the  Basket-makers  was  first  pointed  out  in  print  by 
Dr.  T.  Mitchell  Prudden  in  An  Elder  Brother  to  the  Cliff-dwellers  (Prudden,  1897). 

2  Kidder-Guemsey,  1919. 


IV 


INTRODUCTION 


blower,  J.  M.  Longyear,  D.  L.  Pickman,  and  John  E.  Thayer. 
It  wishes  also  to  tender  its  thanks  to  Professor  Byron  Cummings 
of  the  University  of  Arizona,  who  unselfishly  shared  with  it  the 
field  in  which  he  was  the  pioneer;  to  Clayton  Wetherill  for  his 
enthusiastic  and  faithful  services  as  guide  and  interpreter;  and  to 
Mr.  and  Mrs.  John  Wetherill  and  Mr.  Clyde  Colville  of  Kayenta 
for  their  unfailing  hospitality  and  constant  helpfulness. 

In  the  two  seasons  covered  by  this  report,  the  party  outfitted 
at  Farmington,  New  Mexico,  and  proceeded  by  wagon  and  horse¬ 
back  to  the  trading  post  of  Wetherill  and  Colville  at  Kayenta,  the 
base  from  which  further  explorations  were  conducted.  Kayenta, 
which  may  be  found  on  the  more  recent  Government  maps,  is 
reached  from  Farmington  by  a  journey  of  four  to  five  days, 
depending  on  the  condition  of  the  stock,  and  the  abundance  of 
grass  and  water.  The  caves  and  ruins  described  all  lie  in  Arizona 
within  a  radius  of  one  day’s  ride  from  Kayenta. 

The  country  exerts  a  charm  which  the  authors  confess  their  in¬ 
ability  to  describe.  Its  physical  aspect  has  already  been  noted  by 
more  competent  writers;1  it  is  sufficient  for  the  purpose  of  this 
paper  to  say,  that  although  essentially  a  semi-desert  region,  there 
is  no  difficulty  now,  nor  was  there  ever,  apparently,  in  earlier  times 
for  the  dweller  here  who  understood  the  environment,  to  obtain 
sufficient  sustenance  for  simple  requirements.  The  wastes  of  the 
valleys  and  mesa  tops  that  once  supplied  the  wild  game  with  which 
the  early  people  supplemented  the  fruits  of  their  agriculture,  now 
furnish  ample  grazing  grounds  for  the  Navajo’s  flocks  of  sheep  and 
goats;  these  Indians  also  succeed  on  selected  sites  in  producing 
good  crops  of  corn,  under  conditions  that  to  a  white  farmer  would 
seem  quite  impossible. 

Cambridge,  Massachusetts 
March  5,  1921 


1  Prudden,  1903,  pp.  282-285;  and  1907;  Gregory,  1916,  pp.  45-67. 


CONTENTS 


FIELD  WORK,  SEASON  OF  1916 

The  South  Comb  page 

Sunflower  Cave  Revisited .  3 

Goat  Cave .  7 

White  Dog  Cave . 10 

Kiva .  22 

FIELD  WORK,  SEASON  OF  1917 

Sayodneechee  Canyon 

Cave  3  28 

Cave  4  29 

Cave  5  29 

South  Comb  Revisited 

Cave  6  30 

Cave  7  33 

Sagiotsosi  Canyon 

Cave  8  34 

Cave  9  35 

Cave  10 .  35 

Cave  11 .  36 

Cave  12 .  37 

Cave  13 . .. .  38 

Cave  14 .  38 

MATERIAL  CULTURE 
Food 

Vegetal  Food .  41 

Animal  Food .  44 

Dress  and  Personal  Ornaments 

Body  Clothing .  45 

Sandals .  47 

Necklaces .  47 

V 


VI 


CONTENTS 


Beads .  48 

Pendants  .  49 

Feathered  Pendant .  49 

Ornament  of  Mountain-sheep  Horn .  50 

Deer-hoof  Rattles  .  50 

Unfinished  Ornament  .  50 

Tablet .  50 

Head  Ornaments .  51 

Hair-dressing  .  52 

Cradles  and  Accessories 

Rigid  Cradles  . .  .  54 

Flexible  Cradles  .  58 

Umbilical  Pads .  58 

Basketry 

Coiled  Basketry  .  59 

Twilled  Basketry .  63 

Textiles 

Plain  Weaving .  63 

Twined  Weaving .  65 

Narrow  Fabrics .  75 

Netting  and  Cordage 

Coiled  getting .  77 

Rabbit  Net  .  77 

Snares .  79 

Objects  of  Wood 

Atlatl  or  Spear-thrower .  SO 

Darts .  83 

Foreshafts .  85 

Dart  Points .  87 

Atlatl  Stones .  87 

Grooved  Clubs .  88 

Planting  Sticks .  89 

Scoop-like  Objects  .  90 

Curved  Wooden  Tools .  91 

Other  Objects  of  Wood . .  .  .  92 

Objects  of  Stone 

Manos .  93 

Metate .  93 

Chipped  Knife  Blades .  93 


CONTENTS 


vii 

Hafted  Knife .  94 

Pipe  Drill . 95 

Graver .  95 

Flaking  Tool .  96 

Flaking  Stone .  97 

Objects  of  Clay,  Bone,  Etc. 

Pottery .  98 

Bone  Objects .  98 

Dressed  Skin .  99 

Sinew . 99 

Feathers  .  99 

Ceremonial  Objects 

Ceremonial  Whip . 100 

Problematical  Objects . 100 

Ceremonial  Wand . 101 

Ceremonial  Bundle . 102 

Ceremonial  Bone  Objects . 103 

Medicine  Pouches  of  Skin 

Bag  and  Contents . 108 

Bag  with  Colored  Minerals . 108 

Dice  Bags . 108 

Sack  with  Beads  and  Feathers . 108 

Pouch  and  Small  Articles . 109 

Summary  and  Conclusions 

Summary  of  Material  Culture . 109 

Conclusions . 113 

Bibliography . 119 


BASKET-MAKER  CAVES  OF  NORTH¬ 
EASTERN  ARIZONA 


REPORT  ON  THE  EXPLORATIONS  OF  1916-17 

FIELD  WORK,  SEASON  OF  1916 

The  plans  of  the  1916  expedition  included  the  investigation  of  a 
Cliff-dweller  ruin  discovered  the  previous  year  on  the  west  bank  of 
the  Chinlee,  one  day’s  journey  east  of  Kayenta.1  A  week  was  spent 
here.  After  reprovisioning  at  Kayenta,  camp  was  made  near  the 
mouth  of  Yellow  Head  Canyon,  about  10  miles  to  the  west,  where 
two  days  were  occupied  in  examining  a  small  cave  and  in  studying 
cliff-dwellings  that  had  been  cleared  by  Professor  Cummings  in 

1914.  Sunflower  Cave  (see  map,  figure  1)  a  site  left  unfinished  in 

1915,  was  then  visited  with  the  object  of  further  investigations.2 
The  remainder  of  the  season  was  occupied  in  exploring  the  South 
Comb  and  in  excavating  two  caves  some  5  miles  north  of  Sunflower 
Cave. 

THE  SOUTH  COMB3 

The  South  Comb  is  a  great  sandstone  monocline  that  extends 
from  Marsh  Pass  in  a  generally  northeastern  direction  as  far  as 
the  San  Juan  River.  About  16  miles  from  Marsh  Pass  its  con¬ 
tinuity  is  broken  by  a  narrow  valley  which  leads  through  it  from 
Kayenta  to  the  Agathla  Rock.  Our  work  was  confined  to  that 
section  lying  between  the  break  and  Marsh  Pass. 

Hereabouts  the  course  of  the  Comb  is  sinuous  and  its  appear¬ 
ance  constantly  changing ;  some  stretches  are  tilted  steeply  toward 
the  sheer  walls  of  Skeleton  Mesa,  whose  top  at  those  points  rises 
higher  than  the  jagged  summit  of  the  Comb  itself,  which  is  shown 
in  plate  1,  b.  Other  stretches  show  gentle  inclines  that  seem  to  lead 
to  the  Mesa,  but  on  reaching  the  crests  the  way  is  invariably 
blocked  by  deep  intervening  chasms.  It  is  hard  to  imagine  more 


i  To  be  described  in  a  separate  article. 

1  For  the  location  of  this  and  other  sites,  see  map,  figure  1. 
3  For  the  geology  of  the  region,  see  Gregory,  1916,  p.  47. 


2 


BASKET-MAKER  CAVES 


rugged  rock  formations  than  those  to  be  found  in  this  part  of  the 
Comb.  Frequently,  and  with  little  strain  on  the  imagination,  one 
can  make  out  along  its  crests  weird  forms  in  natural  sculpture :  the 
outlines  of  colossal  animals,  faces,  solitary  spires  and  minarets, 
whose  silent  grandeur  at  nightfall  intensifies  the  brooding  gloom  of 


the  desert  .  In  the  walls  of  the  tortuous  gorges  that  wind  up  among 
the  cliffs  are  countless  caves,  large  and  small,  many  of  them  so  well 
hidden  among  the  contorted  rocks  that  they  can  be  found  only  by 
working  one’s  way  on  foot  along  the  ledges. 

Before  exploring  for  new  sites,  the  expedition  occupied  itself 
with  two  caves  found  in  the  Comb  during  the  previous  year. 


OF  NORTHEASTERN  ARIZONA 


3 


Sunflower  Cave  Revisited.  While  work  at  this  site  was  still  in 
progress  in  1915,  a  sudden  flood  in  Laguna  Creek  cut  off  com¬ 
munication  between  the  camp,  which  lay  on  the  east  bank,  and  the 
ruin.  As  time  was  very  limited,  it  was  thought  best  not  to  wait  the 
several  days  that  it  would  probably  take  for  the  water  to  subside; 
and  the  party  moved  on,  leaving  a  section  at  the  rear  of  the  cave 
unexplored. 

Sunflower  Cave  was  occupied  by  a  small  cliff-house  in  which  was 
found  the  remarkable  cache  of  ceremonial  objects  that  gave  the 
place  its  name.1  Of  even  greater  interest,  however,  was  the  presence 
of  certain  remains  which  led  us  to  suspect  that  in  this  cave  might 
be  found  evidence  as  to  the  relative  age  of  the  Basket-maker  and 
Cliff-dweller  cultures.  Cist  4,  sunk  into  the  hard-pan  behind  the 
cliff -house  rooms,  had  given  the  most  positive  indications  of  this; 
it  is  described  as  follows  in  the  previous  report  (p.  96) : 

The  outlines  of  this  cist  could  be  traced  by  a  disturbed  area  showing  in 
the  face  of  the  trench.  It  had  originally  been  a  stone  enclosure,  though  but 
two  of  the  slabs  were  still  in  place.  A  few  bones  of  a  child  were  found  in  the 
upper  part;  near  the  bottom  at  the  side  nearest  the  back  of  the  cave  were  two 
decorated  bone  tubes.  Imprints  of  coiled  basketry  could  be  seen  in  hard 
lumps  of  the  adobe  filling,  but  nothing  of  the  basket  itself  remained.  The  cist 
gave  us  the  impression  that  it  had  been  a  Basket-maker  burial  chamber  which 
had  been  pulled  to  pieces,  partly  emptied  and  then  filled  in  with  rubbish  dur¬ 
ing  the  cliff-house  period. 

There  was  also  found  in  the  loose  rubbish  a  typical  Basket- 
maker  sandal,  the  presence  of  which,  in  what  was  a  purely  cliff- 
house  site  to  all  outward  appearance,  required  some  explanation. 

We  were  accordingly  very  anxious  to  examine  the  still  undug 
portions  at  the  rear  of  the  cave.  The  results  of  the  second  visit 
amply  repaid  the  effort,  for  we  discovered  unmistakable  strati¬ 
graphic  evidence  of  a  sequence  of  occupation.  The  new  excavations 
revealed  Basket-maker  burials,  some  of  them  entirely  undisturbed, 
below  a  stratum  of  typical  Cliff-dweller  debris.  The  location  of 
the  finds  is  shown  on  the  plan  (figure  2) ;  their  relation  to  the  Cliff- 
dweller  remains  is  clearly  brought  out  in  the  diagrammatic  cross- 
section  (figure  3). 

Cist  5  (cists  1  to  4  opened  in  1915)  was  a  shallow  bowl-shaped  hole 
dug  in  the  hard-pan.  In  it  were  parts  of  the  skeletons  of  a  young 

i  For  a  general  description  of  this  cave  and  of  the  finds  made  there  in  1915,  see  Kidder- 
Guernsey,  1919,  pp.  92-96. 


4 


BASKET-MAKER  CAVES 


child  and  an  adult,  while  scattered  through  the  loose  dirt  about  the 
top  were  portions  of  the  skeleton  of  a  second  child,  which  had  prob¬ 
ably  originally  been  deposited  with  the  other  remains.  The  bones 


Figpbe  2 

Plan  of  Sunflower  Cave,  South  Comb. 


of  the  adult  had  been  carefully  disposed  at  the  bottom  of  the  hole, 
in  a  manner  to  make  the  most  of  the  limited  space.  They  con¬ 
sisted  of  an  undeformed  skull  in  good  preservation,  the  long 
bones  of  the  arms,  the  scapulae,  and  a  few  ribs  and  vertebrae.  The 
arm  bones  were  placed  on  either  side  of  the  skull,  the  other  bones 


OF  NORTHEASTERN  ARIZONA 


5 


being  packed  close  about  it.  Lying  across  the  arm  bones  was  a 
section  of  a  femur  which  showed  a  long  splintered  post-mortem 
break.  The  lower  jaw  was  found  in  the  loose  rubbish  some  fifteen 
inches  from  the  edge  of  the  cist. 

It  had  probably  been  dragged  out  by  rats,  a  thing  we  found  to 
be  not  uncommon  in  caves.  A  small  white  chipped  point  lay 
among  the  bones.  Above  these  remains  was  the  disarranged  skele¬ 
ton  of  the  young  child.  The  second  child’s  skeleton  as  before 
stated,  was  scattered  through  the  loose  earth  about  the  cist.  We 


Figure  3 

Sunflower  Cave,  Cross-section. 


are  at  a  loss  to  account  for  the  neat  arrangement  of  the  adult  bones. 
It  is  clearly  a  case  of  secondary  burial,  but  we  have  never  found 
any  instance  of  this  practice  in  undisturbed  Basket-maker  sites, 
and  the  people  who  looted  Basket-maker  graves  did  not,  as  far  as 
we  are  aware,  ever  trouble  themselves  to  restore  anything  to  place. 

Cist  6  was  2  feet  6  inches  in  diameter  and  was  cut  3  feet  deep 
into  the  hard-pan.  It  lay  4  feet  east  of  Cist  5,  and  contained  only  a 
quantity  of  loose  cedar  bark  and  shredded  grass  piled  in  the  bottom. 
It  is  possible  that  the  bones  found  in  Cist  5  came  from  here,  though 
no  positive  evidence  remained  that  it  had  been  used  for  burial. 

Cist  7  was  an  untouched  Basket-maker  grave;  the  original  filling 
passed  unbroken  above  it,  and  was  in  turn  overlaid  by  Cliff-dweller 
rubbish  (figure  3) .  It  was  4  feet  in  diameter,  3  feet  deep,  and  held 
the  well-preserved  skeletons  of  two  adults  with  undeformed  crania. 
They  lay  flexed  on  their  left  sides,  hands  between  the  lower 
thighs  (plate  10,  c) ;  over  the  head  of  each  was  inverted  a  small 
coiled  basket,  one  of  which  can  be  seen  in  the  photograph.  The 


6 


BASKET-MAKER  CAVES 


earth  about  the  skeletons  showed  traces  of  decayed  organic  matter, 
probably  from  fur-string  robes  and  other  wrappings;  rotted  cedar 
bark  was  found  at  the  bottom.  The  only  object  besides  the  de¬ 
composed  baskets  was  a  small  strip  of  bark  with  one  end  neatly 
trimmed  off. 

Cists  8,  9  and  10  had  all  been  plundered  in  early  times  and  con¬ 
tained  only  fragmentary  skeletons;  a  number  of  cylindrical  seed 
beads  accompanied  the  remains  of  a  child  in  Cist  10. 

Cists  11  and  12  were  within  3  feet  of  the  rear  wall  of  the  cave. 
Although  very  close  under  the  surface  they  had  not  been  molested. 
Cist  11  was  a  shallow  bowl-shaped  scoop  in  the  hard-pan,  and  held 
two  infants.  One  of  these  had  been  wrapped  in  a  fur-string  blanket 
and  lay  on  what  seemed  to  be  a  twined-woven  cedar-bark  mat,  be¬ 
neath  which  was  a  reed-backed  cradle  too  badly  rotted  to  preserve. 
Infant  2  was  also  wrapped  in  a  fur-string  blanket  and  lay  on  a  de¬ 
cayed  reed-backed  cradle;  near  the  head  were  remains  of  a  coiled 
basket  inverted  over  traces  of  a  substance  resembling  meal.  Both 
cradles  were  of  the  rigid  type  shown  in  plate  20.  Accompanying 
the  bodies  were  two  bark  objects  covered  with  prairie-dog  skin, 
which  we  have  since  been  able  to  identify  as  umbilical  pads.  Cist 
12  was  a  small  hole  in  the  hard-pan.  In  it  was  an  infant  wrapped 
in  a  fur-string  robe  and  encased  in  a  twined-woven  bag.  The  robe 
had  been  destroyed  by  insects,  but  the  bag  was  in  a  fair  state  of 
preservation. 

All  the  above  Basket-maker  cists  lay  below  a  layer  of  cliff- 
house  rubbish  from  6  to  8  inches  deep,  made  up  of  ashes,  turkey 
droppings,  bits  of  straw  and  many  potsherds  of  the  same  wares  as 
those  found  on  other  cliff-house  sites  in  this  region.  Beneath  this 
rubbish,  the  surface  of  the  hard-pan  above  the  cists  gave  no  in¬ 
dication  of  their  presence,  being  as  compact  and  of  the  same  ap¬ 
pearance  as  the  surrounding  hard-pan.  If,  therefore,  we  had  fol¬ 
lowed  the  1915  method  of  clearing  and  examining  the  Cliff-dweller 
rubbish  down  to  the  hard-pan,  and  not  cutting  into  it  except  where 
the  tops  of  cists  were  encountered  or  other  surface  indications 
excited  interest,  these  burials  would  have  escaped  notice  altogether. 

Fortunately,  however,  the  trench  was  run  much  deeper  than 
usual  and  entered  Cist  7  from  the  side.  The  section  thus  exposed 
showed  the  top  to  be  filled  to  a  depth  of  1  foot  with  a  compactly 
tamped  mass  exactly  like  the  hard-pan  in  which  the  cist  itself  was 


Peabody  Museum  Papers 


Vol.  VIII,  No.  2,  Plate  1 


South  Comb 

a,  White  Dog  Cliff  and  Navajo  Hogan;  b,  South  Comb,  near  White  Dog  Cave. 


OF  NORTHEASTERN  ARIZONA 


7 


excavated  (figure  3).  That  the  infant  burials  in  Cists  11  and  12 
remained  undiscovered  through  the  period  of  Cliff-dweller  occu¬ 
pancy  is  remarkable,  since  they  were  covered  by  hardly  more  than 
3  inches  of  the  cave  earth;  the  Cliff-dweller  rubbish  here  was  also 
very  thin.  A  possible  explanation  may  be  that  this  part  of  the 
cave  was  used  by  the  Cliff-dwellers  for  storage  or  for  sleeping 
places,  and  was  thus  in  a  measure  protected  from  the  random  dig¬ 
ging  to  which  the  more  open  portions  were  exposed. 

Had  the  Cliff-dwellers,  the  final  tenants  of  the  cave,  been  more 
persistent  in  their  search,  there  would  have  remained  no  trace  of 
the  Basket-maker  period  except  the  cists,  empty  or  refilled  with 
Cliff-dweller  rubbish.  Attention  is  called  to  this  for  the  sake  of 
emphasis,  as  further  on  in  this  report,  caves  are  described  where  all 
evidence  of  Basket-maker  occupancy  other  than  the  empty  cists 
has  been  effaced. 

Goat  Cave.  This  site  was  located  by  the  expedition  of  1915. 
It  lies  about  two  miles  north  of  Sunflower  Cave  at  the  foot  of  a 
steep  incline  leading  to  the  top  of  the  Comb  (see  figure  1).  The 
approach  is  through  a  narrow  ravine  choked  with  great  rocks, 
among  which  a  thick  growth  of  large  old  cedars  has  found  root. 
These  trees  screen  the  place  from  view  except  at  a  few  points  in 
the  ravine.  The  cave  is  a  deep  shelter  at  the  west  end  of  which  is 
an  even  deeper  recess.  As  shown  in  the  plan  (figure  4)  there  are 
two  levels :  a  front  or  lower  one,  extending  the  entire  length  of  the 
cave;  and  a  higher  rear  level,  consisting  of  the  whole  floor  of  the 
inner  recess  and  of  a  narrow  gallery  running  all  along  the  back  of 
the  more  open  part  of  the  cave.  The  whole  upper  level  is  formed  of 
the  original  hard-pan  fill;  along  the  gallery  or  terrace  this  breaks 
away  in  a  vertical  bank.  The  walls  and  roof  of  the  cave  are  much 
blackened  by  smoke.  At  one  point  in  the  rear  of  the  cave  the  floor 
is  covered  by  a  thick  layer  of  ashes  and  charcoal.  In  the  recess  and 
on  the  end  of  the  gallery  next  to  it,  are  a  number  of  partly  fallen 
walls  (plate  2,  a,  b) . 

Room  1,  five  feet  in  diameter,  the  walls  2  feet  4  inches  high,  is 
built  of  upright  slabs  of  stone. 

Room  2,  from  the  foundations  that  remain,  appears  to  have  been 
oval  in  shape.  From  front  to  back  it  measured  8  feet,  its  length 
could  not  be  determined  as  the  end  wall  had  disappeared.  The 
foundation  is  of  thick  stone  slabs  of  uniform  size  set  on  end,  on 


8 


BASKET-MAKER  CAVES 


these  small  stones  were  laid  flat  (plate  2,  a),  but  little  of  the  upper 
course  remained  in  place.  Joints  between  the  foundation  slabs 
were  closed  with  adobe  mortar.  The  upper  courses  appear  to  have 
been  chinked  with  the  same  material.  Back  of  this  room  are  re¬ 
mains  of  two  curved  walls  built  of  coursed  masonry  in  the  usual 
Cliff-dweller  manner.  Stone  apparently  from  these  walls  wTas  used 
to  construct  a  small  cairn  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  recess.  It 


Figure  4 

Plan  and  Cross-section  of  Goat  Cave,  South  Comb. 


resembles  monuments  built  by  the  Navajo  to  mark  water  or  trails; 
nothing  was  found  beneath  it.  Directly  in  front  of  the  cairn  is  a 
heap  of  rocks  fallen  from  the  roof  of  the  cave. 

On  the  lower  level  in  front  of  the  gallery  are  two  roughly  circular 
rooms  which  we  at  first  wrongly  thought  to  be  Cliff-dweller  kivas, 
but  they  were  found  to  contain  none  of  the  special  features  of 
ceremonial  rooms.  Both  were  built  against  the  steep  bank  of  the 
terrace  which  had  been  cut  away  to  form  their  rear  walls. 

Room  3,  the  less  well-preserved  of  the  two,  measured  15  feet 
across  its  greatest  diameter;  the  wall  stood  4  feet  at  its  highest 


Peabody  Museum  Papers 


Vol.  VIII,  No.  2,  Plate  2 


Goat  Cave 

a,  Slab  foundation  of  Room  2;  b,  General  view.  Room  3  in  foreground. 


OF  NORTHEASTERN  ARIZONA 


9 


point.  The  masonry  is  interesting  and  unusual;  medium-sized  flat 
stones  are  laid  up  without  any  mortar  in  such  a  way  as  to  produce 
an  even  surface  on  the  interior  (plate  2,  b),  the  exterior  being  left 
irregular  and  rough.  So  carefully  are  the  stones  placed  that  in 
spite  of  the  absence  of  mortar  the  construction  is  firm  and  solid. 
In  clearing  this  room  a  slab  cist  was  uncovered,  measuring  4  feet 
in  diameter  at  the  top,  3  feet  at  the  bottom,  and  2  feet  deep;  in 
the  bottom  was  a  2-inch  layer  of  ashes  and  charcoal  and  over  this 
2  inches  of  cedar  bark.  It  was  very  similar  to  Basket-maker  slab 
cists  found  in  Cave  1,  1915. 1  The  original  floor  of  Room  3  was  so 
ill-defined  that  we  could  not  determine  exactly  the  relation  of  the 
cist  to  the  floor,  but  as  near  as  could  be  judged  the  upright  slabs 
had  been  sunk  into  it  a  depth  of  about  8  inches. 

Cached  in  the  loose  filling  of  the  room,  at  the  point  indicated  in 
the  plan  (figure  4 ;  note  also  its  position  in  the  cross-section)  was  a 
black  corrugated  olla.  It  was  covered  with  a  thin  flat  stone,  but 
contained  only  drift  sand. 

Room  4-  The  general  shape  of  this  room  is  shown  in  the  plan. 
Its  greatest  diameter,  measured  inside,  is  fourteen  feet,  from  back 
to  front  eleven  feet.  The  highest  point  in  the  wall,  five  feet,  is 
probably  the  original  height,  as  no  loose  building  stones  were 
noticed  here.  No  trace  of  roofing  remains.  The  masonry  wall  has 
no  sharp  corners.  The  back  wall  is  cut  in  the  face  of  the  gallery 
and  has  a  slight  bend  or  angle.  The  stones  are  laid  to  produce  a 
smooth  face  on  the  inside  as  in  Room  3,  and  with  considerable 
skill,  since  they  are  still  firmly  in  place  though  there  is  no  trace  of 
adobe  mortar  in  the  joints.  In  excavating  the  room  we  found 
quantities  of  charcoal  and  scattered  bundles  of  cedar  bark,  but  no 
artifacts.  Two  rude  cists  lined  with  cedar  bark  were  also  opened. 
As  in  Room  3  the  floor  was  not  well-defined. 

In  the  floor  of  the  gallery  were  several  jar-shaped  cists  dug  in 
the  hard-pan  (see  figure  4) .  These  were  exactly  like  the  burial  cists 
found  in  the  Sayodneechee  burial  cave,  1914.2  At  a  point  back  of 
Room  3  where  the  terrace  wall  had  caved  off  carrying  with  it  one 
half  a  cist  (see  section  in  figure  4)  the  exposed  cross-section  showed 
plainly  the  marks  of  digging  sticks  in  the  side  of  the  cist  thus 
brought  to  view.  Two  of  the  cists  contained  a  few  human  bones; 


1  Kidder-Guernsey,  1919,  p.  77  and  plate  27. 

2  Ibid.,  p.  28  and  figure  8. 


10 


BASKET-MAKER  CAVES 


while  other  portions  of  skeletons,  some  bleached  by  long  exposure, 
were  found  in  the  loose  sand  covering  the  floor  of  the  terrace. 
These  were,  no  doubt,  plundered  Basket-maker  burials. 

The  authors  wish  to  call  particular  attention  to  the  rooms  un¬ 
covered  in  this  cave.  Their  masonry,  with  the  exception  of  the 
single  wall  in  the  recess,  is  quite  different  from  that  of  the  cliff- 
dwellings. 

White  Dog  Cave.  This  was  by  far  the  most  prolific  site  dis¬ 
covered  by  the  Museum’s  expeditions  to  northeastern  Arizona. 
Its  position  is  most  inconspicuous  and  the  first  view  of  it  was  ob¬ 
tained  during  a  climb  high  up  among  the  rocks  of  the  Comb, 
the  only  place  in  fact,  from  which  it  could  be  seen  from  any  dis¬ 
tance.  It  might  easily  have  escaped  notice  altogether,  for  a  rider 
passing  along  the  valley  below  would  not  be  tempted  to  explore 
the  narrow  ravine  leading  up  to  it,  particularly  as  the  cliff  in  which 
it  is  located  is  apparently  in  full  view  and  seems  to  be  entirely  un¬ 
broken  (see  plate  1 ,  a) .  One  short  section  of  the  cliff  is,  however, 
out  of  sight  from  the  flat  land,  and  just  there  is  tucked  away  the 
cave.  The  above  conditions  are  described  thus  at  length  in  order  to 
show  tiie  absolute  necessity  of  a  careful  search  on  foot  among  all 
the  little  side  canyons  of  this  broken  country. 

The  approach  is  up  a  tortuous  ravine.  Arriving  below  it  the 
visitor  is  astonished  that  so  great  a  cavern  should  be  so  effectively 
hidden.  It  occupies  a  commanding  position  in  the  rounded  front 
of  a  buttress-like  swell  of  the  cliff.  The  huge  portal,  120  feet 
across  the  base  and  at  least  125  feet  high,  seems  carved  by  nature 
to  conform  to  the  dome-shaped  top  of  the  cliff  above  it.  The  accom¬ 
panying  photograph  (plate  3),  aside  from  having  in  it  no  familiar 
objects  by  which  relative  proportions  may  be  judged,  shows  so 
clearly  the  process  of  formation  and  general  aspect  that  further 
description  is  unnecessary. 

Reaching  the  cave  after  a  stiff  climb  of  100  feet  up  a  steep  talus, 
one  enters  a  spacious  chamber  measuring  approximately  70  feet 
from  back  wall  to  line  of  shelter  and  120  feet  across  the  opening. 
The  ceiling  is  high  and  arched,  the  floor  rises  at  an  easy  grade  from 
front  to  back.  Somewhat  more  than  half  the  floor  space  is  covered 
by  large  rocks  fallen  from  the  roof,  one  of  which  measures  20  feet 
in  length,  12  feet  in  width  and  10  feet  thick  (figure  5  and  plate  1 1,  a) . 
This  and  other  rocks  near  it  we  found  later  had  fallen  since  the 


Peabody  Museum  Papers 


Vol.  VIII,  No.  2,  Plate  3 


White  Dog  Cave. 


OF  NORTHEASTERN  ARIZONA 


11 


cave  was  occupied.  The  unencumbered  portion  of  the  floor  was 
composed  of  clean  sand  and  small  broken  stones.  Although  we 
subsequently  unearthed  considerable  accumulations  of  ashes  and 
charcoal  in  different  parts  of  the  cave,  the  walls  and  ceilings 
showed  not  a  trace  of  soot,  having  been  scoured  clean  by  wind¬ 
blown  sand.  A  demonstration  of  this  process  was  furnished  one 
day  when  a  high  wind  from  the  proper  quarter  created  a  veritable 


whirlwind  in  the  cave,  gathering  up  the  surface  sand  and  swirling 
it  about  in  such  quantities  that  we  were  forced  to  abandon  work 
while  it  continued.  A  piece  of  paper  released  at  the  back  would 
sometimes  make  as  many  as  three  complete  circuits  of  the  cave 
clinging  close  to  the  wall  except  as  it  passed  across  the  front.  On 
mentioning  this  to  Mrs.  Wetherill  we  were  told  by  her  that  the 
place  was  known  to  the  Navajo  as  the  Cave  of  Winds. 

The  first  examination  of  the  cave  for  traces  of  occupation 
showed  at  the  back  against  the  wall  the  tops  of  several  sand-filled 
cists,  dug  in  the  hard-pan.  Searching  the  surface,  a  few  bleached 


12 


BASKET-MAKER  CAVES 


human  bones  were  seen  and  a  small  handful  of  Cliff-dweller  pot¬ 
sherds  was  picked  up.  Digging  at  random  with  a  trowel,  a  few 
fragments  of  basketry  and  some  bone  beads  were  found.  Near  the 
center  of  the  cave  the  ends  of  two  upright  stakes  were  noticed, 
projecting  from  2  to  3  inches  above  the  surface.  Not  until  our 
second  and  more  thorough  examination  did  we  discover  on  the 
west  side  a  low  foundation  wall  mudded  on  to  the  sloping  rock  floor 
of  the  cave.  This  was  apparently  the  beginning  of  a  small  Cliff- 
dweller  storage  room  or  bin.  As  a  “prospect”  the  cave  fulfilled 
every  requirement.  Its  exploration  yielded  a  collection  which 
fully  represents  most  phases  of  the  material  culture  of  the  Basket- 
makers. 

Across  the  front  of  the  cave  where  work  was  commenced  there 
was  found  a  natural  ridge  of  coarse  debris,  back  of  which  the  sand 
fill  had  accumulated  above  the  hard-pan  floor  to  a  depth  of  from 
5  to  7  feet.  Toward  the  back  this  deposit  grew  shallower  until 
along  the  rear  wall  the  hard-pan  cropped  to  the  surface. 

The  fill  carried  no  refuse  pockets  or  well-defined  rubbish  layers 
such  as  are  found  marking  floor  levels  in  Cliff-dweller  caves.  In 
general  it  was  made  up  of  a  surface  layer  G  inches  to  1  foot  deep  of 
drift  sand,  below  which  it  was  composed  of  sand  and  bits  of  stone 
mixed  with  straw,  pieces  of  bark,  and  particles  of  charcoal. 

Occasionally  there  appeared  thin  strata  of  coarse  charcoal  and  in 
certain  areas  there  were  encountered  quite  extensive  accumulations 
of  ashes  and  charcoal.  In  the  general  digging  a  number  of  speci¬ 
mens  were  found  at  various  depths.  They  consisted  mainly  of 
basket  sherds,  fragments  of  fur-string  blankets  and  tattered  bits 
of  woven  bags;  a  mummified  foot  and  other  fragments  of  human 
remains  were  also  recovered.  All  other  objects  were  taken  from 
cists. 

In  the  plan,  figure  5,  are  indicated  a  large  number  of  cists  grouped 
along  the  east  wall;  there  were  no  cists  on  the  west  and  north 
sides.  The  majority  of  these  were  jar-shaped  excavations  in  the 
hard-pan  ranging  in  size  from  small  pot-holes  1  foot  in  diameter 
and  of  about  the  same  depth,  to  examples  5  feet  deep  and  4  feet 
G  inches  in  diameter.  Some  burials  were  found  in  this  type  of  cist 
but  for  the  most  part  they  were  empty,  save  for  sand  or  sometimes 
cedar  bark  and  grass  at  the  bottom.  Most  of  the  burials  were  in 
the  front  half  of  the  cist  area.  A  few,  as  was  just  stated,  were  in 


Peabody  Museum  Papers 


Vol.  VIII,  No.  2,  Plate  4 


White  Dog  Cave 

g,  Cradle  bundle  as  found.  The  other  figures  show  cradle  and  contents  unwrapped, 
a,  Woven  cloth;  b,  f,  Fur  cloth  blankets;  c,  Mummy  of  child;  d,  Umbilical  pad; 
e,  Absorbent  bark;  i,  Cradle.  (About  1/12.) 


OF  NORTHEASTERN  ARIZONA 


13 


cists  completely  excavated  in  the  hard-pan,  others  were  in  shallow 
excavations  in  the  hard-pan  with  one  or  two  stone  slabs  so  placed 
as  to  hold  back  the  loose  sand,  and  a  single  burial  was  in  a  cist  (51) 
of  the  stone  slab  type  described  in  the  previous  report.1  Some  of 
the  burials  had  been  previously  disturbed,2  but  a  number  were 
found  intact,  the  remains  and  mortuary  offerings  in  a  remarkably 
fine  state  of  preservation. 

In  the  account  of  the  excavations  which  follows,  certain  cists  and 
burials  are  described  in  detail.  The  intention  is  to  present  the 
salient  features  of  the  more  typical  ones,  hence  many  small  objects 
found  in  the  cists  or  concealed  among  the  wrappings  of  the  mum¬ 
mies  are  not  enumerated.  They  are,  however,  described  in  detail 
in  another  section. 

Cist  6  (figure  6,  a).  The  first  burial  cist  to  be  encountered 
measured  3  feet  in  diameter,  2  feet  in  depth  and  was  4  feet  below 
the  surface.  It  represents  a  type  that  was  evidently  constructed 
primarily  for  sepulchre.  At  one  side  was  an  upright  stone  slab. 
Although  the  cist  had  been  relieved  of  a  good  portion  of  its  con¬ 
tents  by  ancient  diggers  we  obtained  from  it  a  collection  which 
required  51  catalogue  numbers  to  record.  In  the  upper  part  were 
the  scattered  bones  of  three  infants;  at  the  bottom  a  few  bones 
from  the  skeleton  of  an  adult.  In  the  loose  fill  were  several  bunches 
of  human  hair  (plate  32,  c,  d) .  A  quantity  of  human  hair  evidently 
from  the  head  of  a  mummy  3  that  had  been  pulled  from  the  cist  was 
also  found  in  the  loose  fill.  One  small  strand  was  wrapped  about 
with  a  leather  thong.  Later  we  found  in  another  cist  a  mummy 
with  coiffure  intact,  having  a  queue-like  strand  wrapped  in  the 
same  manner.  These  were  practically  all  the  human  remains  that 
were  left.  At  the  bottom  against  one  side  were  a  quantity  of  pinon 
nuts,  the  rotted  remains  of  woven  bags,  loose  beads,  basket  sherds, 
pieces  of  woven  bags  and  fur-string  robes. 

Cist  13,  a  shallow  bowl-shaped  excavation,  contained  the  re¬ 
mains  of  two  infants.  One,  a  very  young  child  wrapped  in  two 
fur-string  blankets  and  a  fragment  of  woven  cloth,  was  lashed 

1  Kidder-Guernsey,  1919,  p.  77  and  plate  27. 

2  This  grave  looting  so  commonly  found  in  Basket-maker  cave  cemeteries  is  not  modern. 
Although  we  have  no  direct  evidence  in  its  support,  our  theory  is  that  it  was  the  work  of  the 
Cliff-dwellers.  See  Kidder-Guernsey,  1919,  p.  84. 

3  The  mummies  were,  of  course,  not  artificially  preserved  in  any  way;  they  are  merely 
desiccated  bodies. 


14 


BASKET-MAKER  CAVES 


tightly  to  a  small  reed-backecl  cradle;  an  umbilical  pad  was  in 
place  and  the  dried  umbilical  cord  was  tied  to  one  of  the  blankets. 
This  mummy  bundle  as  found,  and  also  unwrapped  so  that  all  its 
parts  can  be  seen,  is  shown  in  plate  4.  The  second  body,  that  of 
a  child  about  4  years  of  age,  was  completely  encased  in  a  woven 
bag1  (plate  30,  f).  It  was  also  shrouded  in  a  fur-string  robe. 
Beneath  this  bundle  were  pieces  of  a  cedar-bark  mat,  and  over 
it  was  spread  a  fur-string 


inverted  tray  basket.  At  one  side  of  the  cist  was  a  bowl-shaped 
basket  also  inverted.  In  the  fill  some  8  inches  above  the  tray 
basket  was  a  skin  bag  containing  shelled  corn  (plate  15).  At 
one  side  of  the  cist  lay  an  atlatl  in  perfect  condition  save  that 
before  being  placed  in  the  cist  it  had  been  bent  nearly  double. 
This  and  the  baskets  are  illustrated  in  situ  in  plate  10,  e. 

Cist  22  contained  the  bodies  of  three  individuals.  Its  shape  was 
roughly  circular,  the  greatest  diameter  being  5  feet  2  inches,  depth 
2  feet  10  inches;  the  top  was  5  feet  6  inches  below  the  surface. 
Each  body  occupied  a  shallow  depression  scooped  out  of  the  bottom 
of  the  cist  as  shown  in  figure  6,  b.  The  remains  were  partly  mum¬ 
mified  though  not  in  a  good  state  of  preservation.  The  heads, 


i  The  design  on  this  bag  is  shown  in  color  in  plate  28. 


OF  NORTHEASTERN  ARIZONA 


15 


however,  retained  their  hair  and  much  of  the  dried  tissue  of  the  face. 
Each  body  had  been  wrapped  in  a  fur-string  blanket  and  sewed  up 
in  woven  bags,  all  of  which  were  in  an  advanced  state  of  decay. 

Number  1,  the  body  of  a  young  female,  lay  on  its  right  side, 
knees  drawn  up  and  hands  between  the  thighs.  A  skein-like  rope 
of  human  hair  was  wound  around  the  left  forearm,  passed  between 
the  thighs  and  made  fast  about  the  right  leg  below  the  knee.  At 
the  waist  were  fragments  of  a  string  apron.  Some  portions  of  bags 
that  had  been  used  to  cover  the  body  remained.  A  fragment  at 
the  feet  was  of  very  fine  weave  while  pieces  adhering  to  the  knees 
were  much  coarser.  Covering  the  whole  were  two  tray  baskets. 
Number  2  was  a  female.  Three  baskets  were  used  to  cover  the 
body.  It  rested  on  its  back  with  head  and  legs  inclined  to  the 
left;  the  feet  were  drawn  up  close  to  the  body;  the  upper  legs, 
bent  at  the  hips,  were  at  right  angles  to  the  torso.  The  hands 
were  in  front  of  the  lap,  and  were  bound  together  at  the  wrists  by 
fourteen  turns  of  a  tightly  twisted  cord  of  human  hair.  This  cord 
was  then  knotted  to  a  skein-like  rope  of  human  hair  and  both  rope 
and  cord  passed  through  between  the  thighs  and  about  the  lower 
legs  above  the  ankles.  At  the  waist  were  remains  of  a  string  apron 
and  on  the  breast  lay  a  disk-shaped  pendant  of  shell,  ornamented 
with  incised  lines.  About  the  neck  were  beads  of  olivella  shells 
and  thin  disk-beads  cut  from  shell,  together  with  part  of  the  leather 
string  by  which  they  had  been  suspended.  In  the  bottom  of  the 
cist  under  the  body  were  a  number  of  dice-like  stones  and  a  single 
corn  cob.  Number  3  (male,  20  to  25  years  of  age)  rested  on  its  left 
side,  limbs  loosely  flexed,  hands  between  thighs.  Two  tray  baskets 
covered  the  body.  At  the  right  side  lay  a  grooved  club,  at  the  feet 
were  a  pair  of  badly  rotted  square-toed  sandals  with  leather  tie- 
strings  and  a  quantity  of  small  deer  or  antelope  hoofs.  Near  the 
hoofs  were  two  handle-like  bone  objects  with  small  stones  attached 
to  their  ends.  About  the  neck  was  a  string  of  shell  beads.  Among 
the  objects  found  under  the  body  was  a  fine  chipped  knife  blade 
(plate  35,  k)  and  its  shrunken  wooden  haft. 

Cist  held  the  mummies  of  two  adults,  one  male  and  one  female, 
each  accompanied  by  the  remains  of  a  dog,  and  an  unusual  number 
of  mortuary  offerings.  The  remarkably  fine  state  of  preservation 
of  everything  in  this  cist  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  burials  were 
surrounded  by  dry  sand.  The  excavation  in  the  hard-pan  made 


16 


BASKET-MAKER  CAVES 


to  receive  the  bodies  was  a  shallow  hole  just  deep  enough  to  hold 
them.  As  in  Cist  22,  each  individual  occupied  a  scooped-out  place 
in  the  bottom  of  the  cist.  At  the  back  was  an  upright  stone  slab; 
as  none  were  used  at  the  front  or  sides,  its  purpose  was  evidently 
to  hold  back  the  loose  sand  while  the  hard-pan  was  being  excavated. 
Just  in  front  of  the  slab  was  a  stout  log  3  feet  in  length,  the  ends 
and  sides  charred  by  fire.  This  reached  to  the  surface  and  was 
one  of  the  stakes  observed  when  the  cave  was  entered  (see  upper 
right  center,  plate  6,  a) ;  whether  or  not  it  was  so  placed  at  the 
time  the  burials  were  made  we  were  unable  to  tell.  It  may  have 
been  a  marker,  but  we  have  found  no  other  burials  indicated  in 
this  way. 

Mummy  1  (female)  lay  on  its  right  side,  limbs  loosely  flexed. 
Two  large  woven  bags  split  down  the  side  encased  the  remains, 
one  drawn  over  the  head,  the  other  over  the  feet;  the  tops  met 
at  the  middle  of  the  body  and  were  sewn  together  with  yucca 
leaves  (plate  7,  a).  As  usual  the  corpse  was  wrapped  in  a  fur- 
string  robe.  Over  it  were  inverted  two  baskets,  a  bowl-shaped  one 
covering  the  feet;  the  other  a  large  carrying  basket  with  tump¬ 
line  attached  covering  the  head  and  upper  part  of  the  body.  The 
baskets  and  the  manner  in  which  a  number  of  digging  sticks  were 
disposed  in  the  grave  is  shown  in  plate  6,  a.  The  planting  stick 
at  the  front  with  one  end  resting  on  the  edge  of  the  cist  was  evi¬ 
dently  placed  to  hold  the  basket  upright.  The  cedar  bark  that 
appears  in  the  upper  left  hand  corner  is  from  another  cist.  On  re¬ 
moving  the  carrying  basket,  a  small  dog  was  found  lying  below 
it  on  the  left  side  of  the  mummy.  Under  the  bowl-shaped  basket 
was  a  substance  resembling  meal.  On  lifting  the  body  from  the 
cist  there  was  found  beneath  it  a  thick  bed  of  fur  and  feathers 
compacted  by  decay  into  a  mass  that  was  taken  out  unbroken. 
On  examination  at  the  Museum  this  proved  to  have  embedded  in 
it  bundles  of  feathers,  skin  containers  and  skin  bags;  these  and 
their  contents  are  described  under  Material  Culture.  On  the 
bottom  of  the  cist  was  a  badly  shrunken,  but  complete  atlatl  and 
near  it,  but  not  in  contact  with  it,  was  a  roughly  chipped  piece  of 
quartzite  which  may  originally  have  been  tied  to  its  back.  At  one 
side  on  the  bottom  was  a  wand  with  a  yucca  braid  and  twigs 
attached  to  one  end.  Quantities  of  grass  seed,  pinon  nuts  and 
squash  seeds  were  also  found  at  the  bottom  of  the  cist. 


Peabody  Museum  Papers 


Vol.  VIII,  No.  2,  Plate  5 


a,  Cradle  in  situ.  Cist  54,  White  Dog  Cave;  b,  Cave  10,  Sagiotsosi  Canyon. 


OF  NORTHEASTERN  ARIZONA 


17 


Mummy  2  (male  about  35  years  of  age)  lay  on  its  left  side  with 
feet  drawn  up  tight  against  the  body;  head  east  and  facing  south. 
It  was  wrapped  in  the  same  manner  as  mummy  1  (see  plate  8). 
Inverted  over  the  body  was  a  large  pannier  basket  which  is  shown 
behind  the  front  basket  in  the  photograph  (plate  6,  a) ;  over  the 
head  was  a  bowl-shaped  basket.  A  second  basket  of  the  same 
shape  lay  just  to  one  side,  covering  the  fragments  of  a  squash  shell 
vessel.  Removing  the  pannier,  three  tray-shaped  baskets  gradu¬ 
ated  in  size  with  the  smallest  at  the  bottom  were  found  beneath. 
The  pannier  also  partly  covered  the  remains  of  a  large  long  haired 
and  nearly  white  dog,  which  in  turn  lay  across  the  two  bowl-shaped 
baskets  (see  plate  6,  b).  There  was  also  found  under  the  pannier 
a  large  quantity  of  flies,  the  dog  having  apparently  been  already 
fly  blown  when  placed  in  the  cist.  The  eggs  evidently  hatched 
and  the  flies  died  in  the  space  under  the  carrying  basket  without 
ever  seeing  the  light  of  day.  We  thought  that  the  flies  might  serve 
to  fix  the  time  of  year  in  which  these  burials  were  made,  but  Mr. 
N.  Banks  of  the  Museum  of  Comparative  Zoology,  to  whom  we 
are  indebted  for  their  identification,  informs  us  that  they  are 
Caliphora  coloradensis,  a  very  hardy  species  which  flourishes  from 
early  spring  to  late  fall,  so  it  is  not  possible  to  fix  a  very  definite 
date  by  them.  The  digging  sticks  might  indicate  that  the  spring 
planting  was  in  progress,  but  this  is  of  course  mere  conjecture. 

Extending  from  the  edge  of  this  cist  on  the  east  side  was  a 
shallow  hole  just  deep  enough  and  of  sufficient  size  to  contain  the 
remains  of  a  young  infant.  Only  the  bones,  and  part  of  a  badly 
rotted  fur-string  robe  were  left. 

Cist  27.  The  unusual  plan  of  this  cist  is  shown  in  figure  5.  It 
was  dug  in  hard-pan  to  a  depth  of  2  feet  10  inches,  measured  4 
feet  9  inches  in  length  and  2  feet  6  inches  at  its  widest  point.  The 
sand  and  fill  above  had  a  depth  of  about  1  foot.  One  side  of  the 
cist  was  formed  by  the  face  of  a  vertical  break  in  the  rock  floor  of 
the  cave,  the  ledge  nearly  cropping  through  the  hard-pan  at  this 
point,  a  circumstance  which  probably  accounts  for  the  elongated 
shape,  as  the  rounded  end  seems  to  indicate  an  original  intention 
to  dig  the  conventional  circular  cist.  In  it  were  found  the  partly 
mummified  bodies  of  two  adults  placed  one  above  the  other,  facing 
in  opposite  directions  (plate  9,  a). 


18 


BASKET-MAKER  CAVES 


Number  1,  the  uppermost,  an  adult,  probably  male,  lay  face 
clown,  knees  drawn  up  and  crushed  against  the  chest,  feet  under 
hips,  left  arm  extended  at  full  length  along  the  side;  the  right 
forearm  was  bent  across  the  waist.  Number  2,  a  male  of  about 
25  years,  lay  on  the  bottom  of  the  cist  directly  under  mummy  1 
and  with  head  in  the  opposite  direction.  The  limbs  were  arranged 
in  practically  the  same  manner  as  those  of  the  upper  mummy,  the 
feet  of  which  rested  on  the  face  of  this  one. 

Accompanying  these  remains  was  a  large  number  of  specimens 
some  in  a  good  state  of  preservation,  though  objects  at  the  bot¬ 
tom  of  the  cist  and  baskets  at  the  top  and  sides  had  suffered  from 
decay.  We  were,  however,  able  to  determine  that  there  had  been 
at  least  seven  baskets,  mostly  medium  sized  trays.  In  preparing 
the  cist  to  receive  the  bodies,  a  number  of  atlatl  spear-shafts  had 
been  broken  into  various  lengths  and  placed  crisscross  on  the  bot¬ 
tom.  On  the  upper  side  a  few  inches  out  from  the  rock  there  stood 
on  edge  a  rectangular  frame  of  sunflower  stalks  and  broken  atlatl 
spear-shafts  tied  at  right  angles  to  each  other.  Back  of  it,  also  on 
edge,  were  placed  several  tray  baskets.  On  the  opposite  side  next 
to  mummy  2  were  bundles  of  sticks  or  reeds  so  badly  shrunken 
that  their  nature  could  not  be  made  out  with  certainty;  they  were 
probably  atlatl  spear-shafts.  Placed  over  mummy  2  were  more 
spear-shafts  and  the  bundled  fragments  of  a  wooden  device,  part 
of  which  is  figured  in  plate  30,  d,  e.  At  one  side  of  mummy  1  were 
two  grooved  clubs.  Quantities  of  grass  and  squash  seed  were 
found  in  much  decayed  skin  containers;  also  a  number  of  small 
objects,  among  them  a  fine  chipped  knife  blade,  beads  of  seed  and 
stone,  pendants  of  shell  and  stone,  a  comb-like  head-ornament  and 
a  bone  handle  with  leather  strings  attached. 

Cist  80  was  a  jar-shaped  excavation  in  the  hard-pan,  15  inches 
in  diameter  at  the  top,  23  inches  in  diameter,  1  foot  below  the  rim, 
and  24  inches  in  depth.  In  it  were  the  skeletons  of  six  infants. 
Four  were  found  in  woven  bags.  Of  other  wrappings  there  re¬ 
mained  tattered  pieces  of  dressed  skin  and  bits  of  fur-string.  Five 
umbilical  pads,  similar  to  those  from  Cist  11,  Sunflower  Cave, 
were  taken  from  various  parts  of  this  cist.  These  could  not  be 
assigned  to  individual  burials  as  the  skeletons  were  more  or  less 
mixed  as  if  the  cist  had  been  partly  rifled  in  early  times.  At  the 
bottom  were  two  cradles  in  excellent  condition.  A  few  inches 


Peabody  Museum  Papers  Vol.  VIII,  No.  2,  Plate  6 


Cist  24,  partly  cleared,  showing  baskets  in  situ;  b,  Pannier  baskets  removed,  showing  small  baskets, 
mummy  of  white  dog,  and  many  dead  flies. 


OF  NORTHEASTERN  ARIZONA 


19 


above  these  were  about  8  quarts  of  shelled  corn;  no  trace  of  a 
container  could  be  found.  Scattered  through  the  fill  were  beads 
of  seed,  stone,  and  olivella  shell,  a  green  stone  pendant,  a  small 
grinding  stone,  and  two  strips  of  bark,  like  the  piece  found  in  Cist 
7,  Sunflower  Cave.  Joined  to  this  cist  by  a  small  funnel-like  hole 
was  a  second  cist,  the  same  diameter  but  not  so  deep,  while  cutting 
the  rim  of  this  was  a  third  and  larger  one  (Cist  33,  figure  5). 
These  were  empty;  they  form  a  good  example  of  a  number  of 
similar  arrangements  found  in  the  course  of  the  excavation  (see 
Cist  52,  figure  5) .  All  are  characterized  by  one  or  more  small  flue¬ 
like  holes  dug  down  from  the  surface  and  penetrating  the  sides  of 
the  cist,  or,  as  in  the  case  above  noted,  connecting  small  potholes 
to  the  cist  (plate  9,  d,  and  plate  14,  a).  Sometimes  these  holes, 
instead  of  entering  the  large  cist  obliquely,  were  dug  at  nearly 
right  angles  from  the  pothole  to  the  side  of  the  larger  cist.  As  a 
rule  cists  of  this  type  were  empty  save  for  bark  or  grass  stalks. 
They  strikingly  resemble  the  field  pit-ovens  used  by  the  Hopi  for 
roasting  corn; 1  there  are  no  indications,  however,  that  these  had 
ever  had  fires  built  in  them. 

Cist  31  as  shown  in  the  plan,  figure  5,  was  partly  under  one  end 
of  a  large  rock.  In  order  to  reach  it  we  were  obliged  to  remove 
from  the  surface  many  others,  some  so  large  that  they  had  first  to 
be  broken  up.  The  top  of  the  cist  was  3  feet  6  inches  below  the 
surface,  its  greatest  diameter  4  feet,  depth  1  foot  10  inches.  At 
one  side  was  a  single  stone  slab.  In  the  cist  was  the  partly  mummi¬ 
fied  body  of  an  adult,  the  bones  of  the  skeleton  held  together  by 
dried  tissue  and  caked  adobe  (plate  7,  b).  The  remains  rested 
on  the  left  side,  knees  drawn  up  level  with  chin,  hands  palms  to¬ 
gether  under  left  cheek  and  supporting  head.  A  woven  bag  cov¬ 
ered  the  head  and  shoulders.  It  had  been  split  down  the  side 
before  drawing  on,  then  sewn  together  again  with  yucca  leaves. 
A  portion  of  the  bag  was  in  good  condition.  Over  the  mouth  of 
the  mummy  outside  the  bag,  was  tied  a  sandal  of  the  square-toed 
type.  About  the  feet  and  lower  part  of  the  body  were  the  remains 
of  a  fur-string  blanket.  The  bag  and  wrappings  were  held  in 
place  by  a  binding  of  yucca  leaves.  About  the  neck  were  seed 
beads.  Inverted  over  the  middle  of  the  body  was  a  coarse  bowl¬ 
shaped  basket;  under  it  lay  a  quantity  of  plant  stalks,  apparently 


1  Hough,  1919,  figure  3. 


20 


BASKET-MAKER  CAVES 


of  Brigham  tea,  also  an  animal  bone  and  a  pointed  twig  with  a 
string  attached.  In  the  lap,  as  shown  in  plate  7,  b,  was  a  bundle 
made  up  of  two  wooden  implements,  a  foreshaft  with  stone  point, 
a  wand-like  stick  with  a  bunch  of  reddish  fiber  tied  to  the  end,  and 
a  small  woven  object,  the  whole  wrapped  about  with  a  feather 
headdress  and  a  number  of  turns  of  fine  string  (plate  40).  The 
fill  about  the  body  was  caked  and  discolored.  Nothing  was  found 
in  the  cist  under  the  body. 

Cist  32  gave  indications  of  previous  disturbance.  It  was  dug 
in  the  hard-pan  against  the  side  of  the  cave  and  showed  more  than 
usual  care  in  the  smoothing  of  its  walls.  It  was  oval  in  shape,  3 
feet  6  inches  in  length,  2  feet  in  width,  and  2  feet  6  inches  deep. 
In  the  edge  of  the  end  opposite  the  cave  wall  was  a  shallow  groove 
perhaps  made  to  seat  a  cover.  In  the  upper  part  of  the  cist  was 
the  skeleton  of  an  infant  and  remains  of  a  small  reed-backed  cradle, 
both  too  far  gone  to  collect.  In  a  sub-excavation  at  the  bottom 
was  the  skeleton  of  a  child  about  six  years  of  age,  knees  drawn  up 
to  chin,  head  north,  face  southeast.  About  the  remains  were 
traces  of  fur-string  wrappings  and  coiled  basketry;  under  them  a 
small  quantity  of  green  powder.  This  cist  was  probably  originally 
a  storage  cist  and  perhaps  had  a  stone  slab  cover  which  fitted  into 
the  groove  at  the  end.  It  may  have  contained  at  one  time  other 
remains  than  those  found,  for  it  would  hardly  have  been  dug  for 
them  alone,  as  it  was  of  much  greater  size  than  necessary. 

Cist  35  was  not  dug  straight  into  the  hard-pan,  but  was  slightly 
undercut.  It  measured  1  foot  3  inches  across  at  the  top  and  2 
feet  6  inches  in  greatest  diameter;  the  bottom  was  rounded.  In 
it  was  the  mummy  of  a  baby  on  a  reed-backed  cradle;  the  body 
was  enclosed  in  a  bag  and  lay  on  a  twined-woven  cedar-bark  mat 
(plate  21,  d).  All  were  in  good  condition.  The  mat  appears  to 
be  part  of  an  old  cedar-bark  cradle  like  the  ones  found  in  Caves  1 
and  2  by  the  1915  expedition.1 

Cist  40  was  a  large  jar-shaped  storage  cist  excavated  in  the  hard- 
pan.  It  was  very  symmetrical  in  shape  and  measured  2  feet  in 
diameter  at  the  top,  4  feet  in  diameter  2  feet  below  the  rim,  and 
4  feet  6  inches  in  depth  (plate  9,  b).  The  rim  was  2  feet  below  the 
surface.  In  the  top  was  found  a  rabbit  net  tied  in  a  compact 
bundle,  together  with  a  quantity  of  apocynum  bark  done  up  in 

1  Kidder-Guernsey,  1915,  p.  165  and  plate  72. 


Peabody  Museum  Papers  Vol.  VIII,  No.  2,  Plate  7 


White  Dog  Cave 

t,  Wrapped  mummy  of  woman  from  Cist  24;  b,  Mummy  of  man  from  Cist  31. 


OF  NORTHEASTERN  ARIZONA 


21 


bundles.  The  net  had  evidently  been  cached  here  after  the  cist 
was  abandoned  and  filled  up,  since  the  hole  in  which  it  rested  was 
partly  dug  in  the  hard-pan  at  the  edge  of  the  cist,  and  partly  in 
the  fill  of  the  cist  itself.  In  clearing  the  cist  a  thick  layer  of  cedar 
bark  was  found  1  foot  from  the  bottom;  below  it  was  clean  sand. 
One  foot  from  the  rim  on  the  side  opposite  the  net  there  was  a  pot¬ 
hole,  1  foot  in  diameter  and  the  same  in  depth. 

The  rabbit  net,  a  remarkable  specimen,  is  described  in  detail  in 
another  place.  Its  lack  of  definite  relation  to  the  cist  or  to  other 
Basket-maker  remains  at  first  raised  a  doubt  in  the  authors’  minds 
as  to  whether  it  might  not  have  belonged  to  a  later  period.  On 
the  other  hand  it  will  be  remembered  that  a  very  similar  excava¬ 
tion  at  the  side  of  Cist  24  contained  the  remains  of  a  Basket- 
maker  infant. 

Cist  4-1  gave  evidence  of  previous  disturbance.  On  clearing  it 
a  small  niche  was  found  in  one  side  that  contained  the  remains  of 
an  infant,  a  small  basket,  a  skin  covered  object  (umbilical  pad) 
and  the  usual  fur-string  robe. 

Cist  51,  3  feet  6  inches  deep,  and  2  feet  6  inches  in  diameter,  was 
constructed  of  slabs  set  about  the  sides  of  a  shallow  excavation  in 
the  hard-pan.  It  contained  the  skeletons  of  an  adult  and  an  infant. 
The  former  lay  on  its  right  side,  head  south.  The  infant  rested 
across  the  breast  and  left  arm  of  the  adult  and  had  been  wrapped 
in  a  fur-string  blanket  and  placed  in  a  skin  bag.  Both  blanket 
and  bag  were  in  an  advanced  state  of  decay.  There  were  traces 
of  a  woven  bag  that  had  once  covered  the  remains  of  the  adult. 
At  one  side  of  the  cist  near  the  head  of  the  adult  was  a  small  bowl- 
basket  containing  beads  and  a  variety  of  small  objects,  which  are 
described  elsewhere.  There  were  also  in  the  cist  food  offerings 
of  corn  and  pinon  nuts. 

Cist  54-  After  removing  from  the  surface  a  large  number  of 
rocks,  the  fill  under  the  end  of  the  great  rock  in  the  center  of  the 
cave  was  explored.  Here,  2  feet  below  the  under  side  of  the  rock 
in  what  appeared  to  be  a  rude  cist,  there  was  found  a  cradle  in  ex¬ 
cellent  condition.  With  it  were  fragments  of  fur-string  blankets 
and  pieces  of  woven  bags,  but  no  trace  of  a  body.  The  photo¬ 
graph,  plate  5,  a,  shows  the  cradle  in  situ.  The  thin  edge  of  the 
rock  had  been  broken  off  somewhat  before  the  picture  was  taken; 
it  originally  extended  nearly  a  foot  further  than  is  shown.  The 


22 


BASKET-MAKER  CAVES 


rock  may  have  broken  from  the  roof  centuries  ago  or  in  very  recent 
times.  The  cradle,  however,  must  have  been  in  the  position  in 
which  it  was  found  when  the  fall  occurred. 

Summing  up  the  evidence  as  to  mortuary  customs  contained  in 
the  foregoing  descriptions,  we  see  that  the  bodies  were  placed  in 
cists  of  three  sorts:  jar-shaped  excavations,  whose  primary  pur¬ 
pose  seems  to  have  been  for  storage;  larger,  shallower  pits  appar¬ 
ently  dug  expressly  to  contain  burials;  and  slab  cists  of  the  tjrpe 
illustrated  in  plate  9,  c.  Almost  every  cist  held  more  than  one 
individual  and  all  the  indications  pointed  to  the  interments  having 
been  made  simultaneously.1 

The  bodies  of  adults  were  always  wrapped  in  fur-string  blankets 
and  at  the  loins  of  most  females  were  small  string  aprons. 
The  limbs  were  flexed  to  occupy  the  least  possible  space  and  oc¬ 
casionally  held  in  that  position  by  cords.  The  bundles  thus  pre¬ 
pared  were  encased  in  large  woven  bags,  which  were  cut  down  one 
side  for  greater  ease  in  drawing  on,  and  then  stitched  together 
again  with  yucca  leaves.  Babies  were  sometimes  placed  in  bags, 
but  were  more  commonly  buried  on  their  cradles  with  their 
blankets,  umbilical  pads  and  “diapers”  of  bast  in  place  as  in  life. 

No  fixed  manner  of  orienting  the  remains  was  adhered  to,  this 
detail  having  been  decided,  apparently,  by  the  manner  in  which 
the  body  best  accommodated  itself  to  the  shape  and  size  of  the  cist. 

Mortuary  offerings  were  numerous  and  varied  and  seem  fairly 
representative  of  the  food,  implements,  weapons  and  ornaments 
of  daily  life  together  with  some  objects  of  a  ceremonial  nature. 
The  standard  gift  to  the  dead  was  basketry;  tray  baskets  were 
practically  always  inverted  over  the  heads  of  adults,  often  over 
children;  large  panniers  also  served  as  covers;  and  smaller  baskets, 
empty  or  filled  with  trinkets,  were  generously  piled  into  the  graves. 

Kiva  (?).  There  remains  to  describe  a  peculiar  and  puzzling 
room  found  at  the  front  of  the  cave  (see  figure  5).  The  first  inti¬ 
mation  of  its  existence  came  when,  in  clearing  the  surface  above 
what  proved  later  to  be  the  ventilator  shaft,  the  wall  of  the  main 
structure  was  exposed.  The  room,  as  shown  in  the  plan,  lies  at 
the  foot  of  the  great  rock  pile  which  rises  at  a  sharp  angle  to  the 

1  The  same  thing  was  noted  in  Sunflower  Cave  (Cists  7  and  11);  in  Cave  1  Kinboko 
(Kidder-Guernsey,  1919,  p.  S3)  and  in  the  Sayodneechee  burial  cave  (Ibid.  p.  29) ;  at  the  latter 
site  there  were  more  individuals  per  grave  than  in  any  of  the  others,  one  cist  holding  no  less 
than  19  bodies;  all,  apparently,  buried  at  one  time. 


Peabody  Museum  Papers  Vol.  VIII,  No.  2,  Plate  8 


White  Dog  Cave 

Mummy  of  man,  Cist  24:  a,  Wrapped;  b,  With  coverings  removed. 


OF  NORTHEASTERN  ARIZONA 


23 


back  of  the  cave.  It  was  owing  to  the  imminent  danger  of  rock 
slides  from  this  source  that  we  were  unable  to  excavate  the  room 
completely,  either  in  1916  or  on  a  second  visit  to  the  cave  in  1917, 
when  another  attempt  was  made  to  do  so. 

This  chamber  is,  and  apparently  always  was,  entirely  subter¬ 
ranean.  The  part  that  we  were  able  to  clear  is  irregularly  circular. 
The  room  is  sunk  through  the  surface  sand  and  into  the  hard-pan, 
which,  standing  as  dug,  forms  the  lower  part  of  the  wall  (see 
figure  7,  b).  The  upper  wall  is  masonry  of  rough  and  irregular 


Figure  7 

White  Dog  Cave:  Plan  and  Cross-section  of  Kiva. 


stones  laid  with  little  attempt  to  preserve  a  smooth  face  either 
within  or  without.  At  one  point  on  the  east  side  two  upright  slabs 
were  set  in  and  the  wall  was  built  on  them.  The  top  courses  are 
somewhat  more  carefully  constructed.  Adobe  mortar  is  used, 
sparingly  below,  more  abundantly  above.  The  whole  structure  is 
thickly  “spalled”  with  small  fragments  of  stone  wedged  into  the 
cracks. 

The  general  shape  of  the  wall,  partly  straight,  partly  curved,  can 
best  be  seen  in  the  plan  and  section.  The  southern  offset,  which 
in  the  plan  has  the  appearance  of  a  bench  or  banquette,  we  are 
inclined  to  think  was  not  a  part  of  the  original  design  of  the  build¬ 
ers,  but  was  made  necessary  by  the  occurrence  here  of  an  outcrop¬ 
ping  of  the  ledge,  the  upper  surface  of  which  slanted  inward  at  too 


24 


BASKET-MAKER  CAVES 


great  an  angle  to  furnish  a  stable  foundation  for  a  wall  along  the 
inner  edge.  At  any  rate,  the  offset  overcame  this  difficulty, 
though  for  some  reason,  instead  of  continuing  the  wall  as  before, 
of  laid-up  stones,  stone  slabs  set  on  end  were  used.  We  do  not 
know  whether  or  not  this  method  of  construction  is  continued 
under  the  rock  pile.  Placed  across  the  top  of  the  slabs  was  a  stout 
log,  one  end  resting  on  the  top  of  the  offset,  the  other  passing  out 
of  sight  under  the  rock  heap.  It  is  possible  that  the  entrance  to  the 
room  was  at  this  point,  as  the  sloping  surface  of  the  ledge  here  is 
very  smooth  as  if  from  wear.  South  of  the  offset  and  outside  the 
room  we  found  slabs,  set  at  right  angles  to  the  wall,  and  three  up¬ 
right  stakes  burned  off  close  to  the  adobe  in  which  they  were  em¬ 
bedded.  There  was  a  large  amount  of  charcoal  in  this  area.  The 
slabs  of  the  offset  wall  and  those  outside  were  much  blackened  by 
smoke. 

On  the  east  side  of  the  room  2  feet  above  the  floor,  there  is  a 
small  opening  leading  through  the  wall  into  a  ventilating  shaft. 
This  orifice  is  five  and  one-half  inches  high  by  eight  inches  wide; 
it  has  jtwo  slender,  round  lintel  sticks  running  across  its  top,  their 
ends  embedded  in  the  masonry  at  either  side  (figure  7,  b).  All  the 
edges  of  the  opening  are  neatly  finished  off  with  adobe,  the  corners 
carefully  rounded.  On  the  floor  of  the  room,  nearly  in  front  of  this 
hole,  lay  a  thin  slab  of  rock  measuring  11  by  12  inches;  on  trial  it 
was  found  to  fit  exactly  into  grooves  around  the  hole  that  had 
obviously  been  made  for  it  (plate  10,  b). 

The  horizontal  shaft,  to  which  the  opening  gave  access,  extended 
out  from  the  wall  for  a  distance  of  3  feet  6  inches.  It  was  built  of 
flat  stones  set  on  either  side  with  their  bases  together  and  their 
tops  slanting  outward,  making  a  V-shaped  trough  2  feet  6  inches 
wide  across  the  top.  This  was  roofed  over  with  short  stout  logs 
covered  with  cedar  bark,  brush  and  coarse  grass,  the  whole  held 
down  by  flat  rocks.  The  photograph,  plate  11,  b,  shows  the  east 
end  of  the  shaft  with  its  log  roofing.  Behind  and  above  may  be 
seen  the  outside  of  the  top  courses  of  the  wall  of  the  main  room,  the 
position  of  which  is  also  indicated  by  the  dotted  line  in  plate  11,  a. 
There  is  no  trace  of  a  vertical  flue  connecting  this  horizontal  pas¬ 
sage  with  the  surface.  The  pitch  of  the  deposit  is  so  steep  here 
that  it  is  probable  that  such  a  shaft  was  unnecessary,  and  that  the 
horizontal  passage  ran  straight  through  to  the  outer  air. 


Peabody  Museum  Papers 


Vol.  VIII,  No.  2,  Plate  9 


Types  of  Basket-maker  cists:  a,  b,  d,  White  Dog  Cave;  c,  Cave  6;  e,  f,  Cave  14. 


4 


OF  NORTHEASTERN  ARIZONA 


25 


The  floor  of  the  room  itself,  as  far  as  we  were  able  to  lay  it  bare, 
was  of  hard  packed  adobe  with  a  smooth  but  uneven  surface. 
At  what  seems  to  have  been  a  little  east  of  the  middle  of  the  room 
there  is  a  firepit,  a  saucer-shaped  depression  in  the  floor  with  a 
neatly  made  coping  or  rim  of  hard  baked  adobe  (plate  10  a).  It 
was  filled  to  the  brim  with  clean  white  ashes.  In  outline  the  pit 
is  a  perfect  circle,  2  feet  in  diameter;  the  rim  is  raised  3  inches 
above  the  floor,  and  the  bottom  is  somewhat  scooped  out  giving  a 
depth  of  5  inches  to  the  center  of  the  pit. 

At  the  floor  level  in  the  back  of  the  room  is  an  oval  niche  dug 
horizontally  12  inches  into  the  hard-pan  of  the  wall,  and  measuring 
18  inches  across  the  front  (see  figure  7,  b).  There  are  two  holes 
five  and  one-half  inches  in  diameter  and  twelve  inches  deep,  dug 
in  the  floor,  one  at  the  angle  of  the  back  and  east  wall,  the  other  at 
the  front  directly  opposite.  So  close  are  these  holes  set  to  the  wall 
that  at  the  back  the  sides  of  the  holes  are  continued  up  through 
the  adobe  of  the  wall  for  some  6  inches.  For  this  reason  we  are 
quite  sure  they  are  intended  for  post-holes  though  no  post  ends 
were  found  in  them. 

The  filling  of  the  room  was  entirely  free  from  rocks,  showing  that 
the  great  pile  that  now  covers  its  rear  portions  and  its  northeast 
wall  must  have  fallen  after  the  place  had  already  been  deserted 
for  a  long  time.  On  the  floor  was  a  3-inch  bed  of  pure  sand;  above 
this  was  an  equal  amount  of  coarse  brush  and  charcoal,  topped  by 
a  layer  of  cedar  bark.  The  remaining  4  feet  6  inches  to  the  sur¬ 
face  was  a  homogeneous  deposit  composed  of  equal  parts  of  rat 
dung  and  sand,  laid  down  in  perfectly  regular,  thread-like  hori¬ 
zontal  strata,  separated  from  each  other  by  thin  layers  of  clean 
wind-blown  sand. 

The  peculiar  make-up  of  this  fill  has  been  a  matter  of  much  dis¬ 
cussion  between  the  authors.  A  plausible  history  of  the  fill  might 
be  that  the  room,  with  roof  still  intact,  was  abandoned  for  a  period 
sufficient  to  allow  the  three-inch  layer  of  clean  sand  to  sift  in  and 
accumulate  on  the  original  floor,  after  which  it  was  retenanted  for 
a  short  time,  the  brush  and  bark  brought  in,  and  fires  built,  then 
vacated  finally  by  man  to  become  the  rendezvous  of  rats  through 
the  long  period  which  must  have  been  required  to  build  up  the  deep 
deposit  of  rat  dung  and  sand  found  in  it.  During  this  latter  period 
the  roof  remained ;  otherwise,  instead  of  thin  regular  layers  of  ap- 


26 


BASKET-MAKER  CAVES 


parently  sifted  sand,  there  would  have  been  sand  deposits  of  vary¬ 
ing  thickness,  marking  the  occurrence  of  high  winds  such  as  we 
experienced  while  at  work  in  the  cave.  Finally,  and  prior  to  the 
falling  of  the  rocks  from  the  ceiling  of  the  cave,  there  came  other 
visitors  who  found  the  roof  a  convenient  source  of  fuel  supply  thus 
accounting  for  its  complete  disappearance. 

Such  a  long  discussion  on  the  foregoing  may  appear  unnecessary'-, 
but  any  condition  which  marks  the  lapse  of  time  seems  worthy  of 
careful  consideration. 

It  is  unfortunate  that  we  were  unable  to  clear  this  room  com¬ 
pletely  as  there  may  be  concealed  beneath  the  debris  which  still 
covers  the  unexplored  portion  some  evidence  that  would  settle 
definitely  the  question  of  whether  it  is  the  work  of  the  people  who 
excavated  the  cists  and  buried  their  dead  here,  or  of  the  Cliff- 
dwellers  who  came  after.  Such  artifacts  as  were  found  in  it  are  of 
little  assistance  in  identifying  the  builders  since  they  are  either 
devoid  of  character  or  of  such  a  nature  as  might  easily  have  been 
dragged  into  it  by  rats.  Outside  the  wall  on  the  northeast  and 
cast  Sides  we  found  some  evidence  of  disturbance,  such  as  might 
have  been  made  in  excavating  for  the  foundation  of  the  room,  and 
in  this  disturbed  area,  close  against  the  wall,  lay  two  sandals  with 
side-loops,  of  a  type  quite  common  in  cliff-dwellings  but  which  we 
have  not  yet  found  directly  associated  with  Basket-maker  remains. 
One  of  these  was  touching  the  wall  at  a  depth  of  about  3  feet  below 
the  surface. 

Had  the  chamber  just  described  been  found  in  a  pueblo  or  cliff¬ 
dwelling,  it  would  have  occasioned  no  particular  surprise,  for  while 
its  ventilator  opening  is  smaller  and  higher  set  than  usual  and  the 
V-shaped  horizontal  passage  is  of  unfamiliar  construction,  yet  the 
mere  presence  of  a  ventilating  apparatus,  the  adobe  rimmed  fire¬ 
place  full  of  white  ashes,  and  the  subterranean  situation  of  the 
room  itself  are  all  features  perfectly  normal  in  Cliff-dweller  kivas. 
Furthermore  the  kivas  of  this  particular  district  are  typically  vari¬ 
able  and  unspecialized.1  The  sandals  seem  to  be  Cliff-dweller  and 
to  have  been  left  where  found  while  the  wall  was  under  construc¬ 
tion.  All  these  things  point  to  an  origin  subsequent  to  that  of 
the  Basket-maker  cists.  On  the  other  hand  we  have  never  seen, 
nor  have  we  read  of,  a  kiva  built  as  is  this  room  all  by  itself 


1  Ividder-Guemsey,  1919,  p.  201. 


Peabody  Museum  Papers 


Vol.  VIII,  No.  2,  Plate  10 


White  Dog  Cave:  a,  Interior  of  kiva;  b,  Ventilator  cover  in  kiva;  d,  Baskets  in  Cist  22; 
e.  Objects  in  Cist  13.  Sunflower  Cave:  c,  Skeletons  in  Cist  7. 


OF  NORTHEASTERN  ARIZONA 


27 


with  no  living-chambers  in  the  vicinity.  All  kivas  with  which  we 
are  familiar  form  integral  parts  of  house-clusters.  The  only 
surely  identifiable  Cliff-dweller  remains  found  in  the  cave  are 
enumerated  as  follows : 

A  storage  room  foundation  was  built  on  the  sloping  rock  floor 
against  the  west  side  of  the  cave  (see  figure  5) ;  it  measured  5  feet 
in  length,  2  in  width  and  consisted  of  a  low  wall,  8  to  10  inches 
high,  the  stones  mudded  in  with  adobe  mortar.  In  the  enclosure 
was  a  bed  of  plant  stalks,  “Brigham  tea”;  the  floor  is  bare  uneven 
rock.  We  collected  in  the  top  sand  of  the  cave  a  few  handfuls  of 
Cliff-dweller  potsherds,  for  the  most  part  plain  gray  and  black-and- 
white  ware,  and  a  few  pieces  of  feather  string.  A  small  corrugated 
pot  covered  by  a  flat  stone  was  found  cached  in  the  sand  1  foot 
6  inches  below  the  surface;  the  mouth  had  been  sealed  with  adobe 
mudded  on  to  corn  cobs,  but  this  had  crumbled  and  was  found  at 
the  bottom  of  the  jar.  About  the  jar  was  a  harness,  made,  with  the 
exception  of  one  short  section,  of  Cliff-dweller  feather  string. 
The  short  piece  is  apparently  Basket-maker  fur-string  and  was 
probably  a  stray  bit  picked  up  from  the  surface. 

The  above  is  not  an  imposing  fist  and  leads  us  to  doubt  that  the 
place  was  ever  regularly  used  as  a  dwelling  by  the  Cliff-house 
people.  As  to  the  identity  of  the  kiva-like  room,  the  writers  them¬ 
selves  are  not  agreed;  the  senior  author  believes  that  it  may  pos¬ 
sibly  be  of  Basket-maker  origin,  the  junior  considers  it  surely 
Cliff-dweller,  but  can  offer  no  explanation  for  its  isolated  situation. 


28 


BASKET-MAKER  CAVES 


FIELD  WORK,  SEASON  OF  1917 

Reaching  Kayenta  by  the  usual  route  via  Farmington,  New 
Mexico,  and  the  Chinlee,  the  party  first  attempted  explorations 
near  Sayodneechee  Canyon  in  Monument  Valley,  but  was  forced 
by  lack  of  water  to  abandon  the  work  after  a  few  caves  had  been 
examined.  Returning  to  Kayenta  the  exploration  of  the  South 
Comb  was  resumed.  White  Dog  Cave  was  revisited  and  an  unsuc¬ 
cessful  attempt  was  made  to  move  the  rocks  from  above  the  lciva- 
like  room.  Two  new  caves  were  discovered  and  investigated. 
Again  forced  to  move  by  lack  of  water,  the  remainder  of  the  season 
was  spent  in  Sagiotsosi  Canyon,  where  nine  caves  were  either 
wholly  or  partly  explored  (see  map,  figure  1). 

SAYODNEECHEE  CANYON 

This  is  one  of  the  numerous  short  canyons  which  head  near  the 
Agathla  rock  and  run  northward  into  Monument  Valley. 
Although  it  is  without  living  water,  the  Navajo  are  able  to  culti¬ 
vate  corn  in  certain  places.  In  the  winter,  rain  and  melting  snow 
furnish  sufficient  drinking  water  for  the  Indians  and  their  flocks; 
and  in  some  years  enough  of  this  is  held  in  pockets  among  the  rocks 
to  last  until  the  showers  of  July  and  August.  Generally,  however, 
these  natural  reservoirs  go  dry  in  June  and  the  Navajo  must  move 
away  for  a  month  or  so  to  some  more  favored  locality,  returning 
after  the  rains  to  harvest  their  crops. 

Aside  from  its  dryness,  Sayodneechee  is  a  most  attractive  place; 
the  scenery  is  magnificent,  grass  and  firewood  are  abundant,  and 
the  cliffs  contain  many  caves  to  tempt  the  archaeologist’s  shovel. 

Caves  3,  4  and  5  are  in  a  break  of  the  rock  ridge  that  forms  the 
west  wall  of  Sayodneechee  Canyon,  and  are  nearly  opposite  the 
Basket-maker  burial  cave  in  the  above  camron  excavated  by  the 
1914  expedition.1 

Cave  3  is  a  mere  shelter  measuring  15  feet  in  depth  by  30  feet 
in  width.  The  wash  of  a  small  canyon  has  cut  away  the  floor  at 
the  front.  On  the  back  wall  are  a  number  of  pictographs  done  in 
white,  red,  and  yellow  paint;  some  of  these  are  reproduced  in 
plate  13,  a.  We  found  several  slab  cists  buried  beneath  the  sand 
floor.  They  contained  nothing  except  cedar  bark. 

1  Kidder-Guernsey,  1919,  p.  27  and  figure  1. 


Peabody  Museum  Papers 


Vol.  VIII,  No.  2,  Plate  11 


White  Dog  Cave 

a,  Rock  pile  in  center  of  cave;  b,  Southern  wall  and  ventilator  in  kiva. 


OF  NORTHEASTERN  ARIZONA 


29 


Cave  4,  a  short  distance  up  the  canyon,  is  20  feet  above  the 
wash.  It  has  a  depth  of  12  feet  and  measures  about  24  feet 
across  the  front.  The  floor  is  of  hard-pan  free  from  surface  sand. 
In  it  are  a  number  of  small  cists  or  pot-holes.  At  the  front  the 
hard-pan  formation  has  a  vertical  break,  in  which  is  dug  a  small 
cubby  hole  measuring  4  feet  in  depth  by  3  feet  6  inches  in  width. 
At  the  entrance  to  this  little  room,  shown  at  the  left  in  plate  12,  a, 
are  a  number  of  flat  slabs  arranged  like  steps,  a  single  slab  2  feet 
long  and  8  inches  wide  serving  for  a  sill.  There  are  several  small 
holes  dug  through  the  top  of  the  room  to  the  surface  above.  The 
largest  of  these  holes  is  plugged  with  a  rock. 

A  little  further  along  the  cliff  is  a  rectangular  Cliff-dweller  room, 
the  dimensions  of  which  are,  length  12  feet,  width  7  feet,  height 
of  wall  6  feet  6  inches.  In  the  center  of  the  front  wall  is  a  door¬ 
way  29  inches  high,  16  inches  wide.  At  the  top  is  a  flat  stone  slab 
lintel  supported  by  two  round  sticks  built  into  the  wall,  another 
slab  serves  as  a  sill.  The  edges  have  grooves  or  jambs  for  the  re¬ 
ception  of  a  slab  door.  The  masonry  of  this  room  is  good.  There 
were  no  pictographs.  Potsherds  were  plentiful  and  along  the  cliff 
near  the  room  there  was  some  rubbish  and  a  number  of  ash  beds. 

Cave  6  is  still  further  up  the  canyon.  It  measures  45  feet  across 
the  front,  and  15  feet  in  depth.  At  the  back  are  the  foundations 
of  a  room  10  feet  long  by  6  feet  wide  built  out  from  the  cliff.  The 
masonry  is  of  stones  laid  flat  in  adobe  mortar.  Two  slab  cists  and 
two  cists  dug  in  the  hard-pan  floor  were  found  in  the  cave,  but  no 
specimens. 

Near  the  sites  just  described  is  a  small  shelter  on  the  ground 
level  of  such  insignificant  size  that  no  number  was  assigned  to  it 
in  our  field  notes.  We  dug  here,  however,  and  at  a  depth  of  one 
foot  below  the  surface  found  two  slab  cists  partly  filled  with  cedar 
bark.  These  were  undoubtedly  storage  cists,  as  near  by  is  a  Navajo 
cornfield,  located  in  a  small  basin  which  collects  and  retains  such 
water  as  in  time  of  rain  runs  off  the  surrounding  cliffs,  an  advantage 
probably  recognized  by  the  early  occupants  of  the  region  as  readily 
as  by  the  present  day  farmers. 

The  principal  structures  in  these  caves  are  of  course  Cliff- 
dweller.  The  slab  cists  and  possibly  some  of  those  excavated  in 
the  hard-pan  we  are  inclined  to  think  are  Basket-maker.  No  great 
amount  of  work  was  done  at  any  of  the  sites,  as  we  were  on  such 


30 


BASKET-MAKER  CAVES 


short  rations  of  water  that  our  examination  really  only  amounted 
to  a  reconnoissance.  Continued  drought  finally  drove  us  away, 
and  we  returned  to  the  South  Comb. 

SOUTH  COMB  REVISITED 

Cave  6.  This  site  is  in  the  next  break  in  the  Comb  north  of 
White  Dog  Cave,  a  distance  of  about  one  mile  in  an  air  line.  It 
consists  of  a  small  alcove  at  the  back  of  a  huge  crescent-shaped  bay 
or  cove  in  the  cliff  wall.  Filling  the  open  end  of  the  crescent  and 
hiding  the  cave  from  view  in  front  is  a  high  sand  hill  covered  by 
a  growth  of  thick  brush  and  tall  pines.  The  cliff  on  either  side  of 
the  cave  overhangs,  sheltering  a  wide  strip  along  the  wall  some 
fifteen  feet  lower  than  the  floor  level  of  the  cave  proper.  On  this 
level  to  the  left  of  the  entrance  there  is  part  of  a  roughly  laid  wall, 
built  against  the  cliff.  It  forms  a  small  enclosure  and  is  probably 
the  work  of  Navajo  herders  or  possibly  Ute,  as  on  the  smooth  cave 
wall  back  of  it  are  a  number  of  drawings  in  charcoal  (plate  13,  f), 
one  of  which,  a  female  figure,  is  shown  wearing  a  dress  that  has 
characteristic  features  of  the  Ute  woman’s  dress.  Inside  this  en¬ 
closure  were  traces  of  recent  fires  and  on  the  surface  was  a  small 
mudded-up  fire  pit,  which  gave  us  the  impression  of  having  been 
the  work  of  children. 

The  walls  and  ceiling  of  the  inner  cave  are  much  blackened  by 
smoke.  It  had  been  used  as  a  sheep  shelter  and  the  old  floor  was 
covered  by  a  thick  layer  of  dung.  The  most  careful  search  of  the 
surface  on  the  first  level  and  the  bank  leading  up  to  the  cave 
proper  failed  to  produce  a  single  Cliff-dweller  artifact  and  our 
excavations  later  showed  not  a  vestige  of  Cliff-dweller  occupation. 
Here  for  the  first  time  we  had  a  cave  containing  only  Basket- 
maker  remains,  and  while  but  a  few  specimens  were  found  they 
were  for  the  most  part  very  true  to  type,  the  exceptions  being  en¬ 
tirely  new  material.  A  single  burial  was  encountered.  This  was 
in  a  stone  slab  cist  (plate  9,  c),  exactly  like  those  found  in  such 
numbers  in  Cave  1,  Kinboko  (1915).  Unfortunately,  however,  it 
had  not  only  been  plundered  at  some  early  date,  but  what  re¬ 
mained  of  its  contents  had  been  partly  destroyed  by  fire.  The  top 
of  the  cist  was  18  inches  below  the  surface.  It  measured  3  feet 
4  inches  in  diameter  at  the  top,  2  feet  6  inches  in  diameter  at  the 


Peabody  Museum  Papers 


Vol.  VIII,  No.  2,  Plate  12 


a,  Structures  in  Cave  4  Sayodneechee  Canyon;  b,  Cists  in  Cave  14,  Sagiotsosi  Canyon. 


OF  NORTHEASTERN  ARIZONA 


31 


bottom,  and  was  2  feet,  4  inches  deep.  Ten  slabs  were  used  in  its 
construction.  In  the  upper  part  was  a  quantity  of  cedar  bark  and 
a  few  bones  from  the  skeleton  of  a  child,  then  a  mass  of  charcoal 
and  charred  wood  in  which  were  fragments  of  human  bones.  On 
the  bottom  at  one  side  was  a  partly  burned  cradle  frame,  and  the 
mummified  foot  of  an  adult.  Other  objects  found  scattered  in  the 
fill  are  as  follows:  fragments  of  fur-string  robe,  dressed  skin  robe, 
twined-woven  grass  mat,  string  apron,  a  sandal,  an  atlatl,  a  grooved 
club,  a  skin-covered  umbilical  pad,  the  bark  core  of  another,  a  skin 
bag,  a  bunch  of  human  hair,  a  fragment  of  squash  shell,  and  many 
small  bits  that  could  not  be  identified.  All  these  specimens  were 
more  or  less  charred. 

But  one  other  slab  cist  was  encountered.  Its  only  unusual  fea¬ 
ture  was  a  bottom  lining  of  thin  slabs  of  spruce  bark. 

Nearly  all  the  level  portion  of  the  cave  floor  was  occupied  by  a 
deep  ash  bed  in  which  only  a  few  minor  specimens  were  found. 
Just  outside  this  area  at  a  depth  of  1  foot  6  inches  was  a  tray 
basket,  and  buried  in  the  loose  fill  near  it  at  about  the  same  depth 
was  the  small  woven  bag  in  which  was  the  little  skin  pouch  shown 
with  its  contents  in  plate  44. 

On  the  right  of  the  cave  the  floor  rises  and  narrows  until  it  gives 
place  to  a  mere  bank  of  debris  piled  up  against  the  back  wall.  At 
the  highest  point  of  this  bank  and  next  to  the  wall,  three  deer  or 
possibly  mountain-sheep  snares  were  found.  They  had  been 
cached  in  a  shallow  hole  scooped  out  of  the  fill,  and  were  covered 
with  cedar  bark  and  a  thin  layer  of  dirt.  These  snares  are  new 
items  in  our  Basket-maker  fist.  They  are  described  and  figured 
in  another  place  (plate  32) .  A  few  feet  from  where  the  tray  basket 
was  found,  and  at  the  same  depth,  were  three  sherds  of  a  substance 
resembling  pottery  of  unbaked  clay,  tempered  with  shredded  cedar 
bark,  and  bearing  on  one  side  the  imprint  of  coiled  basketry 
(plate  25,  a).  This  may  really  be  a  primitive  form  of  pottery  or 
may  represent  only  some  left-over  material  for  smearing  joints 
in  a  slab  cist,  which  was  prepared  outside  the  cave  where  both 
water  and  clay  could  be  had,  and  then  brought  into  the  cave,  while 
soft,  in  a  convenient  tray  basket,  from  which  it  was  not  removed 
until  it  had  hardened  by  drying.  It  is  the  nearest  approach  to 
pottery  we  have  yet  encountered  under  circumstances  that  would 
free  it  from  suspicion  of  Cliff-dweller  origin.  Mr.  John  Wetherill, 


32 


BASKET-MAKER  CAVES 


to  whom  it  was  shown,  said  it  recalled  the  pottery  found  in  the 
Basket-maker  caves  of  Grand  Gulch.  This,  according  to  McLloyd 
and  Graham’s  description  as  quoted  by  Pepper,1  was  “  a  very 


crude,  unglazed  ware,  some  of  the  bowls  showing  the  imprint  of 
the  baskets  in  which  they  were  formed.’’ 

As  stated  before,  all  our  work  in  this  cave  brought  to  light  not 
one  trace  of  Cliff-dweller  occupation,  which  includes  not  only 
potsherds,  but  also  turkey  droppings  and  turkey  feathers,  beans 


i  1902,  p.  9. 


OF  NORTHEASTERN  ARIZONA 


33 


and  rubbish  layers.  Hence  the  collection  obtained  here,  though 
not  extensive,  is  important  as  it  supplies  unmixed  material  with 
which  to  check  our  previous  identifications. 

Cave  7.  About  one  mile  north  of  Cave  6,  we  found  another 
shelter  very  similar  to  it,  except  that  it  lacked  the  alcove  room  at 
the  back.  A  steep  hill  rises  directly  in  front  of  it.  The  slope  of 
the  hill  next  to  the  cliff  lies  almost  wholly  inside  the  line  of  shelter 
and  its  base  at  that  point  is  cut  away  by  an  arroyo  which  continues 
along  the  wall  for  some  distance.  This  seemed  a  very  unpromising 
site,  but  on  investigation  we  found  a  number  of  slab  storage  cists 
filled  with  cedar  bark  or  grass,  located  as  shown  in  the  cross- 
section,  figure  8.  No  Cliff-dweller  remains  were  found  here  and 
only  two  Basket-maker  specimens.  These  were  the  digging  sticks 
shown  in  plate  37,  e,  f.  This  shelter  seemed  never  to  have  been 
used  as  a  place  of  abode  for  any  great  period  as  we  found  no  exten¬ 
sive  ash  bed.  Perhaps  it  was  conveniently  near  some  cornfield  and 
was  used  only  for  storage  purposes  or  as  a  temporary  dwelling 
place  while  farming  was  in  progress. 

By  the  time  that  the  work  in  Cave  7  was  completed,  the  water 
in  this  section  had  become  so  bad  that  we  were  again  forced  to 
move. 

SAGIOTSOSI  CANYON 

Sagiotsosi  Canyon,  though  small  in  size  compared  with  many 
others  in  this  region,  exceeds  all  that  the  writers  have  visited  in 
the  number  of  caves  to  be  found  in  it  and  its  branches.  Its  scenery 
is  exceedingly  picturesque,  and  it  is  rendered  doubly  attractive  in 
this  parched  land  by  a  stream  of  clear  cold  water  fed  by  numerous 
springs  that  emerge  from  the  base  of  the  cliffs  on  either  side  at  the 
upper  end.  This  stream  flows  the  entire  length  of  the  canyon 
finally  to  disappear  in  the  thirsty  sands  just  outside  the  entrance. 
In  one  place  where  it  has  cut  a  deep  arroyo,  a  dark  peat-like 
stratum  can  be  seen  in  the  vertical  sides  of  the  cut,  marking  an  old 
lake  bottom  that  probably  once  provided  a  natural  reservoir  for 
the  ancient  inhabitants.  Today  a  number  of  well-irrigated  Navajo 
cornfields  and  thrifty  peach  orchards  show  the  water  supply  to  be 
still  ample  for  the  requirements  of  primitive  farming. 

The  caves  in  the  main  canyon  are  for  the  most  part  high  up 
under  the  rim-rock  and  are  perhaps  more  properly  described  as 
shelters.  Some  are  of  huge  size  with  high  arched  openings,  but  of 


34 


BASKET-MAKER  CAVES 


no  great  depth.  Occasionally  they  occur  in  groups  of  three  or 
four,  quite  close  together.  To  enter  them  one  must  first  climb 
over  huge  fallen  rocks  to  the  first  bench  of  the  cliff,  then  up  a  steep 
talus  of  finer  detritus  to  the  caves,  the  bottoms  or  floors  of  which 
are  really  nothing  but  the  truncated  apex  of  the  talus.  Several  of 
these  caves  have  in  them  small  Cliff-dweller  structures.  A  number 
have  already  been  explored  by  Professor  Cummings.1 

On  the  right  about  half  way  up  the  canyon  and  high  in  the  cliff 
is  a  fair  sized  cliff-dwelling  which  to  date  has  not  been  excavated. 
An  interesting  feature  of  this  ruin  is  a  tower  that  commands  every 
approach  to  the  cave.  A  cursory  examination  indicated  that  the 
roof  had  been  destroyed  by  fire.  On  the  back  wall  of  the  cave  is 
a  pictograph  similar  to  the  one  illustrated  in  plate  13,  e. 

Cave  8.  This  cave  is  in  the  first  branch-canyon  leading  out  of 
Sagiotsosi  to  the  west.  It  is  in  reality  a  shelter  under  the  over¬ 
hang  of  the  cliff,  30  feet  in  width,  some  70  feet  in  length  and  about 
25  feet  above  the  bed  of  the  wash.  There  is  in  it  ample  evidence 
of  Cliff-dweller  occupation,  consisting  of  some  foundation  walls, 
a  good  depth  of  rubbish,  with  man}r  potsherds,  and  a  number  of 
Cliff-dweller  pictographs  (plate  13,  d,  e);  there  is  also  a  square¬ 
shouldered  human  figure  done  in  white  and  yellow  paint.  This 
shows  very  faintly  and  a  small  Cliff-dweller  painting  of  a  snake 
overlaps  it  in  one  place  (d).  It  was  this  square-shouldered  picto¬ 
graph  that  induced  us  to  dig  here,  as  our  previous  experience  had 
shown  these  figures  to  be  of  Basket-maker  origin. 

Our  excavations  disclosed  considerable  Cliff-dweller  rubbish 
with  hard-pan  below  it  in  which  we  found  a  number  of  cists,  empty 
except  for  cedar  bark  or  coarse  grass.  These  cists  and  the  square¬ 
shouldered  figure  are  the  only  remaining  evidences  of  Basket- 
maker  occupation.  From  the  general  digging  we  obtained  a  num¬ 
ber  of  Cliff-dweller  specimens  including  the  skeleton  of  a  young 
child  on  a  perfectly  preserved  cradle  which  had  been  buried  under 
the  rocks  at  the  top  of  the  bank  at  the  front. 

This  shelter  seems  insignificant  in  comparison  to  the  huge  caves 
in  the  main  canyon.  It  provides,  however,  a  further  illustration 
of  the  fact  that  no  cave  or  shelter  in  this  region  is  so  small  that  it 
has  not  at  some  time  attracted  tenants  who  have  left  traces  of 
their  occupancy. 

•  1910,  pp.  9-18. 


OF  NORTHEASTERN  ARIZONA 


35 


Cave  9.  Across  the  canyon  from  Cave  8  is  a  small  Cliff-dweller 
ruin  in  a  low  cave  that  shows  signs  of  previous  investigation. 
Rooms  along  the  back  wall  have  been  reroofed  by  the  Navajo  and 
used  for  storage  purposes.  This  cave  in  the  writers’  opinion  gives 
evidence  of  two  occupations.  This  belief  is,  however,  based  wholly 
on  the  presence  of  typical  Basket-maker  cists  excavated  in  the 
hard-pan  floor  (plate  14,  c,  d),  for  we  found  here  no  objects  that 
could  be  classed  as  Basket-maker.  The  cists  occurred  in  a  small 
unoccupied  area  in  the  center  and  were  completely  filled  with 
Cliff-dweller  rubbish.  There  is,  nevertheless,  evidence  at  one  place 


Figure  9 

Plan  of  Cave  9,  Sagiotsosi  Canyon. 


that  the  cists  were  here  when  the  Cliff-dweller  structures  were 
erected,  for  the  side  wall  of  one  room  is  built  partly  across  a  cist 
(see  figure  9).  The  latter  could  hardly  have  been  made  by  the 
Cliff-dwellers,  since  they  could  have  easily  avoided  weakening  the 
foundation  of  their  wall  by  digging  the  cist  a  little  to  one  side. 

In  objection  to  the  foregoing  it  may  be  said  that  the  cists  are  of 
Cliff-dweller  origin;  they  are,  however,  exactly  like  ones  found  in 
other  caves  containing  Basket-maker  burials,  and  since  all  Basket- 
maker  cists  have  a  certain  unity  of  design  and  a  certain  “  look,” 
hard  to  describe  but  at  once  apparent  to  anyone  who  has  opened 
a  number  of  them,  the  authors  are  satisfied  that  their  identifica¬ 
tion  of  the  present  examples  is  correct.  Compare  c  and  d,  plate  14 
with  a  and  b  of  the  same  plate;  the  latter  are  from  photographs 
of  Basket-maker  cists  in  White  Dog  Cave. 

Cave  10.  Just  below  Cave  8  there  is  a  narrow  break  in  the  canyon 
wall  with  a  length  of  perhaps  400  feet.  About  half  way  up  this 


36 


BASKET-MAKER  CAVES 


gulch  is  a  shelter  20  feet  in  depth  and  40  feet  across  the  front 
(plate  5,  b).  The  only  sign  of  occupation  noticed  on  entering 
was  the  top  of  a  stone  slab  cist  which  just  showed  above  the  sur¬ 
face  sand  and  a  number  of  hand-prints  in  red  on  the  back  wall  at 
one  side.  Excavation  proved,  however,  that  the  place  had  been 
occupied  by  both  the  Basket-makers  and  the  Cliff-dwellers.  The 
Cliff-dweller  remains  consisted  of  a  few  potsherds,  several  bone 
scrapers  of  a  typical  Cliff-dweller  form,1  and  a  quantity  of  corn¬ 
cobs  which  we  think  are  Cliff-dweller  because  thejr  are  much  longer 
and  larger  than  the  Basket-maker  corncobs  we  have  found. 

The  Basket-maker  remains  were  empty  storage  cists,  both  slab 
and  excavated,  with  cedar  bark  in  their  bottoms.  There  was  also 
one  Basket-maker  burial  cist  containing  the  partly  mummified 
and  headless  body  of  a  child,  wrapped  in  a  fur-string  robe.  With 
the  body  was  part  of  a  large  dressed  skin  bag  and  at  the  feet  lay 
badly  rotted  square-toed  sandals.  This  burial  was  identical  with 
those  found  in  other  Basket-maker  caves.  Evidence  appeared  that 
this  or  other  cists  had  been  plundered,  as  in  the  general  digging 
there  were  found  a  number  of  fragments  of  Basket-maker  basketry 
and  a  small  piece  of  rabbit  net  made  of  human  hair  and  fiber- 
string  combined. 

To  gain  entrance  to  the  gully  in  which  this  cave  is  located  one 
must  cross  a  smooth,  waterworn  ledge.  Up  this  is  pecked  a  series 
of  tracks  representing  the  hoof-marks  of  a  horse.  They  are  very 
neatly  executed  and  are  the  first  instance  that  has  come  to  our 
notice  of  pecked  pictographs  of  recent  (Navajo  or  Paiute)  origin. 

Cave  11.  This  cave  is  in  the  east  wall  of  the  main  canyon  near 
its  head.  Tt  is  some  200  feet  above  the  wash  and  consists  of  a  nar¬ 
row  shelter  with  a  frontage  of  about  150  feet.  On  the  back  wall 
are  a  number  of  hand-prints  and  some  nearly  obliterated  human 
figures  all  in  white.  On  the  surface  were  scattered  a  few  bleached 
human  bones.  Large  flat  rocks  along  the  front  show  deep  axe- 
grinding  grooves. 

We  were  only  able  to  spend  a  half  day  here.  Our  limited  digging 
showed  that  for  a  considerable  period  the  cave  had  been  used  bjr 
Cliff-dwellers  and  we  recovered  a  number  of  their  characteristic 

■  See  Morris,  1919,  figure  23,  e.  We  found  none  of  this  variety  in  our  cliff-house  excava¬ 
tions  in  1914. 


Peabody  Museum  Papers 


Vol.  VIII,  No.  2,  Plate  13 


Sayodneechee  Canyon:  a,  Pictographs  in  white  paint,  Cave  3.  Sagiotsosi  Canyon:  b,  Pieto- 
graph  in  red  paint,  Cave  12;  c,  Pictographs  in  white  paint,  Cave  14; 
d,  e,  In  white  paint,  Cave  8;  f,  In  charcoal,  Cave  6. 


✓ 


OF  NORTHEASTERN  ARIZONA 


37 


artifacts  from  the  rubbish.  At  one  point  we  found  a  loom-anchor 
in  place.  This  consisted  of  a  smooth  pole  one  and  one-half  inches 
in  diameter  and  six  feet  long,  having  loops  of  braided  yucca  and 
heavy  fiber  cord  strung  on  it  at  regular  intervals.  It  was  buried 
several  inches  below  the  floor  and  held  down  by  flat  rocks,  the  tops 
of  the  loops  just  protruding  above  the  surface.  Under  some  large 
rocks  at  the  front  of  the  cave,  we  uncovered  a  small  Basket-maker 
pannier  basket  in  a  poor  state  of  preservation,  inverted  over  a 
quantity  of  corncobs;  probably  the  corn  had  been  stripped  by 
rodents.  Attached  to  it  was  part  of  a  carrying-strap  of  human  hair 
string. 

In  a  narrow  part  of  the  shelter  and  under  what  must  have  been 
the  path  ordinarily  used  in  entering  it,  we  found  a  disturbed 
Basket-maker  burial.  Some  of  the  bones  including  the  skull  were 
missing.  There  were  with  the  remains  fragments  of  a  coiled  basket, 
square-toed  sandals  and  a  piece  of  finely  woven  cloth. 

Cave  12.  This  is  a  deep  cavern  a  short  distance  down  the  canyon 
from  Cave  11  and  on  the  same  side.  It  is  about  90  feet  above 
the  wash  and  has  a  fairly  level  floor  area  40  feet  deep  by  70  feet 
across  the  front.  The  walls  and  ceiling  are  much  blackened  by 
smoke,  and  the  floor  is  thick  with  charcoal.  At  one  point  the  top 
of  a  rude  enclosure  of  stone  slabs  shows  just  above  the  surface. 
This  is  circular  in  shape  and  has  a  diameter  of  12  feet.  At  one 
place  in  the  back  wall  are  a  group  of  hand-prints  in  red  placed  as 
near  together  as  possible  and  covering  a  space  of  6  feet  or  more; 
the  only  other  pictograph  noticed  is  the  small  figure  shown  in 
plate  13,  b,  also  done  in  red.  On  a  flat  rock  at  the  front  are  a 
number  of  axe-grinding  grooves. 

Our  digging  here  was  confined  to  test  holes,  as  it  was  obvious 
that  it  would  be  too  much  of  an  undertaking  for  our  small  party 
to  clear  the  cave  completely.  We  found  rubbish  along  the  back 
wall  to  a  depth  of  a  little  more  than  one  foot.  It  was  very  com¬ 
pact  and  contained  a  large  amount  of  broken  sticks  and  twigs, 
straw  and  charcoal.  There  were  two  or  three  slab  cists  partly 
filled  with  cedar  bark  but  holding  no  specimens. 

We  do  not  think  any  great  returns  would  reward  further  work  at 
this  site.  It  had  apparently  been  used  by  Basket-makers  and 
Cliff-dwellers  in  turn,  but  did  not  appeal  to  the  latter  strongly 


38 


BASKET-MAKER  CAVES 


enough  to  warrant  the  erection  of  any  structures.  It  is  set  verjr 
deep  in  the  cliff  and  gets  but  little  sun;  it  may  have  been  con¬ 
sidered  undesirable  on  this  account. 

Cave  13.  This  is  a  very  long  shallow  shelter  high  up  in  the  cliff 
near  the  head  of  the  branch  canyon  in  which  Caves  8,  9  and  10 
are  located.  At  some  not  very  remote  time  a  great  quantity  of  the 
roof  had  scaled  off,  burying  almost  the  entire  floor  beneath  tons 
and  tons  of  rock.  At  one  end  of  the  cave  is  a  series  of  small  cliff- 
house  rooms,  some  of  which  still  retain  roofs;  others  are  crushed 
and  the  walls  partly  buried  beneath  the  fallen  rocks.  Along  the 
whole  front  of  the  cave  can  be  traced  a  low  roughly  built  wall.  It 
seems  probable  that  beneath  the  rocks  are  structures  similar  to 
those  in  the  end  of  the  cave,  but  to  reach  them  would  be  a  very 
large  undertaking.  We  noticed  no  pictographs  here. 

Cave  14.  This  cave,  the  last  to  be  explored,  is  but  a  short  dis¬ 
tance  from  Cave  13.  It  consists  of  a  shallow  shelter  200  feet  above 
the  canyon  bottom,  and  has  a  usable  floor  space  20  feet  deep  by 
70  feet  in  length.  The  line  of  shelter  extends  some  20  feet  beyond 
the  point  where  the  floor  breaks  away  at  the  front.  At  one  end  is 
a  small  niche  in  the  back  wall  7  or  8  feet  above  the  floor.  Leading 
up  to  it  are  a  number  of  pecked  toe-holes.  The  ceiling  and  some 
parts  of  the  walls  of  the  cave  are  blackened  by  smoke.  On  a  smooth 
area  of  the  wall  near  the  center  is  a  group  of  square-shouldered 
human  figures  painted  in  white,  while  other  similar  figures  show' 
faintly  at  other  points  (plate  13,  c).  These  are  distinctly  Basket- 
maker.  Built  against  the  back  wall  of  the  cave  is  a  series  of  seven 
stone  slab  structures,  six  of  which  are  in  a  fair  state  of  preservation. 
These  will  be  given  a  more  detailed  description  further  on. 

In  our  excavations  here  we  found  below  the  surface  several  slab 
cists  of  the  usual  Basket-maker  type.  From  one  w^e  obtained  a 
small  skin  pouch,  which  with  its  contents  is  showm  in  plate  38,  a-c; 
also,  in  the  loose  fill,  a  wooden  implement  plate  36,  a;  and  the 
bundle  of  human  hair  wrapped  with  string  illustrated  in  plate  32,  e. 
At  the  extreme  right  of  the  cave  a  single  square-toed  sandal  was 
found  in  the  general  digging,  and  several  ears  of  corn  cached  in  the 
loose  dirt  against  a  large  flat  rock.  So  near  is  this  cave  to  Cave  13 
that  it  is  inconceivable  that  it  had  not  been  frequented  by  Cliff- 
dwellers  to  some  extent,  yet  careful  search  of  the  surface,  and 


Peabody  Museum  Papers 


Vol.  VIII,  No.  2,  Plate  14 


a,  b,  Cists  dug  in  hard-pan,  White  Dog  Cave;  c,  d,  Cists,  Cave  9. 


OF  NORTHEASTERN  ARIZONA 


39 


watchfulness  throughout  the  digging  failed  to  produce  a  trace  of 
their  handiwork  with  the  possible  exception  of  the  corn  which 
may  be  Cliff-dweller,  as  it  is  unlike  the  characteristic  Basket- 
maker  corn.  It  was  found  in  a  part  of  the  cave  quite  remote  from 
the  cists.  There  were  no  potsherds,  twilled  sandals,  feather  cloth 
or  even  axe-grinding  grooves.  The  latter  are  seldom  absent  from 
caves  in  which  the  Cliff-dwellers  have  lived. 

The  most  interesting  things  in  the  cave  are  the  slab  structures 
along  the  back  wall  (plate  12,  b).  They  average  about  5  feet  in 
diameter,  the  best  preserved  standing  three  and  one-half  feet 
above  the  surface.  Large  stone  slabs  are  used  in  their  construction, 
in  most  cases  overlapping.  The  space  between  the  joints  is  filled 
with  adobe  mortar  which  in  some  instances  has  been  plastered  all 
over  the  slabs  both  outside  and  in.  Small  stones  are  set  in  to  fill 
holes  between  the  slabs  and  the  cave  wall  to  reinforce  the  slabs 
at  their  bases.  In  the  structures  and  on  the  surface  about  them 
were  a  number  of  timbers  from  4  feet  6  inches  to  6  feet  in  length 
and  4  to  6  inches  in  diameter,  probably  roof  timbers.  Other 
shorter  sticks  were  found  which  had  once  formed  a  part  of  a  rim 
molded  on  to  the  top  of  the  slabs.  These  pieces  had  traces  of  adobe 
on  one  side ;  there  were  also  found  large  lumps  of  adobe  tempered 
with  cedar  bark  with  one  side  moulded  round,  the  other  bearing 
imprints  obviously  made  by  the  short  timbers  just  mentioned. 
These  sections  of  stick  and  adobe  are  important  because  they  show 
that  the  present  above-ground  cists  are  identical  in  rim  construc¬ 
tion  with  a  subterranean  Basket-maker  storage  place  (Cist  14) 
found  in  Cave  2,  Kinboko  during  the  1915  season.1  Another  larger 
cist  (12)  in  the  same  cave  had  a  similar  rounded  adobe  coping 
strengthened  with  stones  instead  of  sticks.  The  drawing,  plate  9,  e, 
represents  one  of  the  Cave  14  cists  with  a  short  section  of  the  rim 
restored.  The  slabs  are  shown  partly  denuded  of  the  adobe 
plaster,  while  on  the  wall  behind  the  cist  a  line  of  adobe  is  indicated 
which  probably  marks  the  outline  of  the  roof.  This  structure 
more  fully  restored  appears  in  f,  of  the  same  plate. 

Why  so  much  care  should  have  been  taken  to  finish  the  rim,  if 
the  roof  timbers  were  to  rest  directly  on  it,  we  are  unable  to  say, 
though  it  is  evident  that  a  rim  made  in  this  way  would  greatly 


1  Kidder-Guernsey,  1919,  p.  88. 


40 


BASKET-MAKER  CAVES 


strengthen  the  whole  structure.  These  slab  cists  seem  hardly 
large  enough  for  living  rooms  or  even  for  sleeping  places.  It  seems 
more  probable  that  they  were  storage  cists.  We  do  not  hesitate  to 
identify  them  as  Basket-maker,  because  they  are  exactly  like  the 
Basket-maker  structures  in  Cave  2,  Ivinboko. 


OF  NORTHEASTERN  ARIZONA 


41 


MATERIAL  CULTURE1 

FOOD 

Vegetal  Food.  Maize.  In  1914  and  1915  we  found  indications 
that  the  Basket-makers  cultivated  but  a  single  and  rather  primitive 
type  of  corn,  while  that  grown  by  the  Cliff-dwellers  seemed  to  have 
been  more  highly  developed  and  more  varied  in  character.  Our 
evidence  was  not,  however,  absolutely  conclusive,  for  certain  speci¬ 
mens  of  the  advanced  corn  were  taken  from  Basket-maker  caves, 
though  from  so  near  the  surface  that  we  regarded  them  as  probably 
intrusive.  The  expeditions  of  1916  and  1917  supply  us,  fortunately, 
with  enough  new  finds  to  settle  the  question  beyond  any  reasonable 
doubt.  A  number  of  Basket-maker  caves  were  thoroughly  investi¬ 
gated  and  many  samples  of  corn  were  recovered  from  undisturbed 
and  surely  identifiable  burials  and  storage  cists;  among  all  this 
material  there  is  not  a  single  kernel  of  any  of  the  parti-colored  flour 
or  large  white  flint  corns  that  are  so  common  in  the  cliff-houses.2 

On  specimens  submitted  to  him  for  examination  Mr.  G.  W. 
Collins  of  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry  has  kindly 
given  us  the  following  report : 

The  collection  of  maize  samples  from  the  Basket-maker  caves  is  of  unusual 
interest. 

The  specimens  all  appear  to  belong  to  one  general  type,  a  type  we  have 
called  Tropical  Flint.  This  type  resembles  the  New  England  flint  varieties  in 
having  a  large  part  of  the  endosperm  hard  or  corneous.  It  differs  from  New 
England  flint  in  having  a  larger  number  of  rows  and  smaller  seeds.  Tropical 
flint  varieties  are  common  in  Central  and  South  America  but  are  rare  among 
the  types  grown  by  the  Indians  of  the  United  States.  So  far  as  our  collections 
show  the  Papago  is  the  only  tribe  with  varieties  uniformly  of  this  type. 

The  cobs  of  the  specimens  from  the  Basket-maker  caves  are  all  light  brown 
in  color.  The  pericarp  is  either  red  or  colorless.  The  endosperm  is  either  light 
yellow  or  white.  The  aleurone  or  layer  of  cells  just  beneath  the  pericarp  in  all 
the  specimens  is  a  yellowish  red.  This  is  a  color  entirely  unknown  in  the 
aleurone  of  existing  varieties.  If  this  color  is  not  the  result  of  some  slow  dis¬ 
integration,  it  constitutes  the  first  clearly  marked  distinction  between  pre¬ 
historic  maize  and  present  day  varieties. 

Most  of  the  specimens  are  remarkably  well-preserved.  The  embryos  have 
of  course  disintegrated  but  the  colors  are  much  brighter  than  is  usual  with  old 
specimens. 

1  Only  objects  believed  by  us  to  be  of  Basket-maker  origin  are  included.  Specimens  re¬ 
covered  from  the  cliff-houses  will  be  treated  in  a  later  paper. 

2  See  Kidder-Guernsey,  1919,  p.  154. 


42 


BASKET-MAKER  CAVES 


The  specimens  cannot  be  referred  to  any  existing  variety  with  which  I  am 
familiar  but  with  the  possible  exception  of  the  unusual  aleurone  color  they 
present  no  new  characters. 

Here  then  is  an  undifferentiated,  and  judging  from  its  distribu¬ 
tion,  a  primitive  form  of  corn  grown  by  a  people  whom  the  purely 
stratigraphic  evidence  shows  to  have  antedated  the  highly  de¬ 
veloped  agriculturists  of  the  region.  This  agrees  very  well  with 
the  other  manifestations  of  Basket-maker  culture,  and  particularly 
with  its  lack  of  true  pottery,  stone  architecture,  and  cotton  weav¬ 
ing,  all  of  which  traits  are  characteristic  of  the  perfected  puebloan 
civilizations.  We  have  thus  good  evidence  that  the  Basket-makers 
were  the  pioneer  corn  growers  of  the  district. 

To  what  degree  these  people  depended  upon  maize  is  uncertain, 
but  quantities  of  it  were  found  in  the  burial  cists  and  cached  for 
future  use  as  food  or  for  seed.  There  were  also  recovered  agricul¬ 
tural  implements  such  as  would  be  needed  for  its  cultivation,  and 
the  large  number  of  storage  cists  in  the  caves  would  indicate  by 
their  capacity  that  a  considerable  harvest  was  obtained.  The  sites 
explored  by  us  were  all  within  easy  reach  of  tillable  land  and  this  is 
also  true  of  the  Grand  Gulch  Basket-maker  caves. 

Of  the  actual  finds  of  corn  the  best  example  is  the  skin  bag  full  of 
shelled  kernels  from  Cist  13,  White  Dog  Cave  (plate  15);  there  are 
about  four  quarts,  every  grain  in  perfect  preservation.  This  may 
represent  a  food  offering  deposited  with  the  dead,  or  perhaps  it  is 
carefully  selected  seed  cached  unknowingly  in  the  same  cist  with 
the  burials  (it  was  found  some  8  inches  above  the  remains  shown  in 
plate  10,  e).  Other  interments,  however,  were  accompanied  by  corn 
and  the  remains  of  rotted  hide  containers,  so  that  it  may  indeed  be 
a  food  offering.  A  selection  of  the  more  perfect  ears  of  Basket- 
maker  corn  is  shown  in  plate  15. 

Squash.  This  seems  to  have  been  the  only  other  cultivated  crop 
of  the  Basket-makers.1  We  unearthed  with  the  burials  varying 
quantities  of  squash  seed,  Cucurbita  pepo,  and  many  pieces  of  rind, 
as  well  as  the  complete  vessel  made  from  a  squash  shell  that  is  shown 
on  plate  31,  b. 

Seeds.  In  a  number  of  the  burial  cists  in  White  Dog  Cave,  large 
quantities  of  coarse  grass  seed  were  found.  We  saw  growing  in  the 

1  Though  we  were  constantly  on  the  watch  for  beans  in  the  Basket-maker  sites,  none  were 
found.  This  strengthens  our  belief  that  they  were  not  grown  by  the  Basket-makers. 


OF  NORTHEASTERN  ARIZONA 


43 


vicinity,  the  same  variety  of  grass  from  which  it  was  obtained. 
Mr.  W.  E.  Safford  of  the  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry  identifies  this 
as  follows : 

Oryzopsis  hymenioides,  commonly  called  Indian  Mountain  Rice,  is  used  by 
several  Indian  tribes  for  food;  by  some  only  in  times  of  scarcity,  by  others  as 
a  regular  food  staple.  Mr.  F.  V.  Coville  states  that  the  squaws  of  the  Panamint 
Indians  of  southern  California  gather  it  by  means  of  a  wicker  paddle  resem¬ 
bling  a  small  tennis  racket  with  which  they  beat  the  seeds  from  the  standing 
grass  into  wicker  baskets,  after  which  they  are  winnowed  and  sifted,  and 
parched  and  ground  into  pinolli.  The  late  Dr.  Edward  Palmer  found  this 
seed  in  use  among  the  Paiute  and  Pueblo  Indians,  who  store  it  for  winter  use. 

Cummings1  found  caches  of  seed  in  Sagiotsosi  (“  coarse  bunch 
grass  ”),  which  may  be  the  same.  No  doubt  other  seeds  were 
gathered  and  stored  for  food,  as  we  found  in  1915  several  quarts 
of  Coreocarpus  seeds  in  a  burial  cist  in  Cave  1.  Powell  in  his  ex¬ 
plorations  of  the  Colorado  found  a  tribe  which  subsisted  chiefly 
on  wild  fruits,  nuts  and  native  grains.  In  our  own  explorations  we 
came  upon  an  old  Navajo  squaw  in  the  vicinity  of  Sagiotsosi  who 
was  gathering  the  small  seeds  of  a  low  weed.  She  told  us  that 
these  were  cooked  and  made  into  a  kind  of  mush  by  mixing  with 
goat’s  milk,  also  that  they  were  now  (1917)  being  used  again  for 
the  first  time  since  the  “great  war”  (Navajo  war,  1863).  These 
are  identified  by  Mr.  Safford  as  Chinopodium  sp.,  who  writes  as 
follows  regarding  them : 

They  are  perhaps  the  most  interesting  of  the  collection.  It  has  been  im¬ 
possible  to  determine  their  specific  identity.  They  are  much  larger  than  the 
seeds  of  Chenopodium  fremontii,  gathered  for  food  by  the  Klamath  Indians, 
and  those  of  Chenopodium  leptophyllum  eaten  by  the  Zuni.  In  shape  they 
bear  a  close  resemblance  to  the  seeds  of  Chenopodium  quenua,  the  well-known 
food  staple  of  the  Peruvian  and  Bolivian  Plateau,  but  they  are  of  smaller  size 
and  of  a  much  darker  color  than  the  latter.  These  seeds  have  been  carefully 
compared  with  those  of  the  species  growing  commonly  in  the  southwestern 
United  States;  they  bear  a  closer  resemblance  to  Chenopodium  petiolare  than 
to  any  other  species  in  the  herbarium,  but  they  do  not  seem  to  be  identical 
with  the  seeds  of  that  species.  They  are  evidently  rich  in  starch  and  would 
undoubtedly  form  a  nutritious  article  of  food. 

Pinon  Nuts.  These  were  also  an  important  item  of  diet  and 
were  found  with  other  food  offerings  in  many  of  the  graves. 


1  Cummings,  1910,  p.  14. 


44 


BASKET-MAKER  CAVES 


Unidentified  Food.  Small  quantities  of  plant  stalks,  shriveled 
beyond  recognition,  accompanied  some  burials.  These  are  prob¬ 
ably  from  certain  edible  plants  that  grow  in  the  region,  and  which 
are  eaten  today  by  the  Navajo. 

Animal  Food.  The  bones  of  mammals  and  birds,  generally  so 
common  about  the  dwelling  places  of  primitive  people,  were  en¬ 
tirely  lacking  in  the  group  of  Basket-maker  caves  examined.  We 
do  not  believe  that  this  indicates  a  preponderatingly  vegetarian 
diet,  but  rather  that  it  proves  the  caves  to  have  been  used  merely 
as  temporary  shelters  and  as  burial  places  for  the  dead.  That  these 
people  killed  a  great  deal  of  large  game  is  evidenced  by  the  abun¬ 
dance  of  articles  made  from  the  hides  of  deer  and  mountain-sheep; 
while  quantities  of  the  pelts  of  badgers,  rabbits,  prairie-dogs,  and 
other  small  animals  were  employed  for  bags,  pouches,  and  in  fur¬ 
string  robes.  It  is  probable  that  the  flesh  of  all  the  above  was 
eaten. 

As  to  the  birds  we  have  less  evidence.  Such  feathers  as  were 
found  came  principally  from  hawks  and  owls,  species  not  com¬ 
monly  relished  as  food  by  any  people;  or  from  very  small  birds  of 
bright  plumage  such  as  warblers,  bluebirds,  and  woodpeckers.  As 
we  have  never  come  across  a  single  identifiable  turkey  feather,  it  is 
reasonably  certain  that  the  turkey  was  not  domesticated,  nor  indeed 
does  it  appear  to  have  been  commonly  hunted. 

Although  there  is  no  evidence  that  the  Basket-makers  used  the 
dog  for  food,  it  may  be  well  to  refer  here  to  the  finding  of  two  re¬ 
markably  well-preserved  dog  mummies  in  White  Dog  Cave.  They 
represent  different  types,  formerly  of  wide  distribution  in  the 
warmer  parts  of  America  (plate  15).  Dr.  Glover  M.  Allen  of  the 
Museum  of  Comparative  Zoology,  who  has  made  an  exhaustive 
study  of  the  native  Indian  dog,  has  kindly  contributed  the  follow¬ 
ing  regarding  these  specimens: 

The  larger  is  a  long-haired  animal  the  size  of  a  small  collie,  with  erect  ears 
and  long  bushy  tail.  The  hair  is  still  in  good  condition  and  though  now  a  light 
golden  color,  with  cloudings  of  dark  brown,  it  may  in  life  have  been  darker. 
It  is,  apparently,  a  breed  very  similar  to  the  long-haired  Inca  dog  found  at 
Ancon,  Peru,  in  a  mummified  condition  and  described  by  Nebring  (Sitzb.  Ges. 
Naturf.  Freunde,  Berlin,  1887,  pages  139-141).  The  latter  specimen  is  also 
described  as  yellowish  in  color,  though  this  may  have  been  in  part  due  to 
fading.  A  more  detailed  comparison  of  the  two  specimens  is  not  possible 
without  removing  and  cleaning  the  bones  and  so  injuring  the  present  example 
for  exhibition  purposes. 


Peabody  Museum  Papers 


Vol.  VIII,  No.  2,  Plate  15 


White  Dog  Cave 

Mummies  of  two  varieties  of  dogs,  ears  of  corn,  and  skin  bag  containing  shelled  corn. 


OF  NORTHEASTERN  ARIZONA 


45 


The  other  dog  is  a  much  smaller,  black-and-white  individual,  about  the  size 
of  a  terrier,  with  short,  but  not  close,  shaggy  coat,  erect  ears,  and  long  full¬ 
haired  tail.  Its  muzzle  is  rather  short  and  stubby  in  contrast  to  the  fine  slender 
muzzle  of  other  Indian  dogs  of  about  the  same  size.  In  common  with  many 
skulls  of  American  Indian  dogs,  the  first  premolar  is  lacking  in  the  adult  den¬ 
tition  of  the  lower  jaw.  This  specimen  is  of  especial  interest  as  establishing 
beyond  doubt  the  identity  of  certain  dog  bones  from  Ely  Cave,  Virginia, 
described  as  Pachycyon  robustus,  for  they  agree  perfectly  with  corresponding 
parts  of  the  Arizona  dog.  An  identical  breed  is  represented  among  the  mummi¬ 
fied  remains  of  dogs  from  the  necropolis  of  Ancon,  Peru,  and  has  been  figured 
by  Nebring  as  Canis  ingae  vertagus  in  the  folio  report  of  Reiss  and  Steubel, 
plate  118,  figure  1.  Evidently  it  had  a  wide  distribution  in  our  south  and 
southwest,  and  was  known  also  to  the  Peruvians.  I  have  called  this  the  short 
nosed  Indian  Dog. 

These  and  other  dog  remains,  are  true  dogs,  in  no  way  derived  from  Coyotes 
or  other  native  dog-like  animals  of  America.  Their  forebears  probably  reached 
America  with  their  human  masters,  but  their  Old  World  ancestors  still  remain 
to  be  determined.1 

DRESS  AND  PERSONAL  ORNAMENTS 

Body  Clothing.  We  have  few  data  on  this  subject;  it  is  probable, 
indeed,  that  the  Basket-makers  wore  very  little  clothing  except 
robes  of  fur-string  or  hide,2  and  “gee  strings”  or  cord  aprons.  It  so 
happens  that  all  the  robes  found  in  sufficiently  good  preservation 
to  permit  of  measurement  had  been  interred  with  babies;  the 
largest  of  these  (plate  16,  a)  is  only  25  by  23  inches.  About  an 
adult  mummy  (A-2939)  from  Cist  22,  White  Dog  Cave,  however, 
there  is  wrapped  what  appears  to  be  a  very  large  blanket  of  fur¬ 
string;  and  we  have  fragments  from  deer  and  mountain-sheep 
hides  which  seem  to  have  been  originally  of  ample  size  for  use  as 
mantles  by  grown  people. 

Nothing  resembling  fitted  garments  of  leather  or  cloth  has  so 
far  come  to  light;  it  is  possible,  however,  that  certain  woven  fabrics, 
bits  of  which  were  recovered  from  the  caves 3  may  have  been  used 
as  ponchos.  This  guess  is  based  on  the  resemblance  between  a 
zigzag  decoration  on  one  of  the  cloth  specimens  (plate  26,  c)  and 
similar  patterns  painted  on  the  chests  of  Basket-maker  human 
pictographs  from  the  Monument  country.4  It  must  be  admitted, 

1  For  a  discussion  of  the  types  of  prehistoric  American  dogs,  see  Allen,  1920. 

2  For  details  of  the  weave  of  these  robes,  see  p.  65. 

3  See  plate  26,  b,  c. 

4  Kidder-Guernsey,  1919,  figures  100,  101. 


46 


BASKET-MAKER  CAVES 


however,  that  the  zigzag  was  a  favorite  Basket-maker  design,  and 
that  the  marks  on  the  pictographs  may  perfectly  well  represent 
body-painting. 

A  string  apron  recovered  by  the  1915  expedition  still  remains 
our  best  specimen  of  this  type.  Although  it  was  illustrated  in  our 
former  report  (plate  66,  a),  we  have  since  succeeded  in  unraveling 
it  for  a  somewhat  clearer  photograph;  this,  with  a  picture  of  a 
second  example  from  the  general  digging  in  White  Dog  Cave,  are 
here  reproduced  (plate  16,  c,  d).  It  will  be  seen  that  in  both  cases 
there  is  a  waist  cord  to  which  is  attached  a  fringe  of  pendent 
strings.  In  the  1915  specimen  the  strings  are  of  apocynum  and 
are  looped  over  the  human  hair  waist  cord  and  gathered  in  bunches 
of  about  three  hundred;  the  fringe  is  12  inches  long.1  The  apron 
from  White  Dog  Cave  (plate  16,  c)  is  more  fragmentary;  the 
yucca-fiber  waist  cord  is  double;  over  it  are  hung  yucca  strings 
which  are  gathered  together  in  pairs  and  held,  close  under  the 
waist  cord,  by  a  row  of  twined  weaving,  one  strand  yucca,  the 
other  human  hair.  Although  somewhat  longer  than  the  first  apron 
this  garment  is  much  thinner  and  contains  fewer  strings. 

Platd  16,  b,  shows  part  of  a  similar  skirt  made  of  cedar  bark. 
The  pendent  strands  are  about  12  inches  long  and  are  held  to¬ 
gether  by  a  twining  of  twisted  cedar-bark  string,  the  prolongations 
of  which  once  formed  the  waist  cord. 

As  the  term  apron  implies,  the  fringes  of  these  articles  did  not 
extend  all  the  way  around  the  body,  but  merely  covered  the  front 
of  the  waist;  it  is  probable  that  they  hung  loose,  for  the  strings  are 
too  short  to  have  been  pulled  between  the  legs  and  fastened  over 
the  waist  cord  behind.  They  are  evidently  a  woman’s  garment,  as 
in  every  case  where  they  were  discovered  in  place  on  a  mummy,  the 
body  proved  to  be  that  of  a  female.  Though  we  have  never  found 
any  covering  at  the  loins  of  a  male,  there  are  in  the  collection  two 
objects  that  may  well  have  been  the  ties  of  “gee  strings.”  One  is 
a  loose  twist  of  thirty  animal  wool  threads  (plate  16,  f) ;  it  is  nearly 
7  feet  long  and  its  ends  are  tapered  as  if  for  knotting.  The  other 
is  5  feet  2  inches  long  and  made  of  fifty  to  sixty  thin  strings  of 
human  hair;  the  ends  are  seized  with  fiber  thread  to  prevent 
raveling. 


1  For  a  fuller  description,  see  Kidder-Guernsey,  1919,  p.  157. 


Peabody  Museum  Papers 


Vol.  VIII,  No.  2,  Plate  16 


Clothing:  a,  Fur  cloth  blanket;  b,  Apron  of  shredded  bark;  c,  d,  Aprons  of  fiber  string; 
e,  f,  String  belts.  All  from  White  Dog  Cave  except  d,  f,  which  are  from  Kinboko  Canyon, 
Marsh  Pass.  (About  g.) 


OF  NORTHEASTERN  ARIZONA 


47 


Sandals.  As  most  of  the  specimens  recovered  by  the  1916  and 
1917  expeditions  are  very  badly  rotted  and  as  no  new  types  appear, 
the  reader  is  referred  to  the  classification  and  descriptions  of  the 
1914,  1915  material  given  in  the  previous  report.1 

Necklaces.  These  were  of  two  sorts :  strings  of  beads;  and  twisted 
skin  or  fiber  cords,  to  the  middle  of  which  were  attached  a  few  pend¬ 
ants  or  extra  handsome  beads.  Of  the  latter  class  there  was  re¬ 
covered  only  one  fragmentary  example  (plate  17,  b) ;  it  bears  two 
very  beautifully  polished  lignite  discs  strung  on  a  fiber  cord,  which 
is  itself  attached  to  a  sinew-bound  thong ;  the  whole  was  probably 
fastened  to  a  longer  neck  cord  as  was  done  with  a  similar  specimen 
found  in  1915.2 

The  second  type  is  more  fully  represented,  several  strings  of 
beads  having  been  taken  from  the  necks  of  skeletons  in  White  Dog 
Cave.  A  selection  is  given  in  plate  25,  e-h.  The  most  interesting 
of  these  is  composed  of  seventy-one  thick  discoidal  black  lignite 
and  white  limestone  beads  strung  alternately  on  a  narrow  thong. 
They  are  graduated  in  size  from  a  maximum  diameter  of  f  of 
an  inch  at  the  center  of  the  string,  to  f  of  an  inch  at  the  ends. 
An  unusual  refinement  of  technic  was  practised  by  cutting  several 
of  the  beads  to  a  wedge-shape  (see  figure  10,  c,  and  plate  25,  h) 
and  introducing  them  here  and  there  throughout  the  set  in  order 
that  it  might  hang  evenly.  Loose  behind  the  neck  of  the  mummy 
who  wore  this  string  were  fourteen  olivella  shells  that  apparently 
had  once  been  fastened  together  to  form  a  sort  of  “  dangler  ”  at¬ 
tached  to  the  tie-strings  of  the  necklace. 

Another  string  (plate  25,  f),  which  was  recovered  in  order,  is  made 
of  one  hundred  little  saucer-shaped  shell  beads  (figure  10,  g); 
seventy-five  thin,  roughly  discoidal  shell  beads  (figure  10,  f) ;  and 
eighteen  olivella  shells,  one  of  which  bears  an  incised  zigzag  decor¬ 
ation  (figure  10,  i).  These  different  kinds  of  beads  were  grouped 
together.  Plate  25,  e,  shows  a  third  necklace  composed  of  ninety- 
five  beads  arranged  as  follows :  one  of  lignite,  seven  olivella  shells, 
one  of  seed,  one  of  bone,  one  of  red  shale,  one  of  green  shale,  one 
of  red  shale,  eighty-one  of  white  limestone.  Plain  strings  of 
olivellas  designed  to  go  once  or  twice  around  the  neck  are  not 
uncommon. 

1  Kidder-Guernsey,  1919,  pp.  157-160. 

2  Kidder-Guernsey,  1919,  p.  161  and  figure  72,  a.  A  full  description  of  this  type  of  necklace 
is  there  given. 


48 


BASKET-MAKER  CAVES 


Beads.  Under  this  head  are  considered  all  the  beads  found, 
whether  strung  into  necklaces,  discovered  loose  in  the  cists,  or  in¬ 
cluded  in  “  medicine  outfits.”  The  commonest  of  all  are  little 
cylinders  averaging  ys  of  an  inch  long  (figure  10,  e,  and  plate  25,  g); 
some  are  of  albatite,  a  phase  of  asphaltic  shale,  but  the  great  major¬ 
ity  (hardly  distinguishable  from  the  above  except  under  a  magni¬ 
fying  glass)  are  made  from  some  hard  black  seed  so  cut  down  in 
manufacture  as  to  be  unidentifiable.  Other  seeds  were  used  un- 


9  h  i 

FiGunE  10 

Beads  from  White  Dog  Cave.  (Full  size.) 


worked  except  for  a  narrow  bore.1  Two  varieties  of  these  seed 
beads  are  identified  by  Mr.  Safford: 

The  first  is  the  polished  white  nutlet  of  Onosmodium  occidental !e,  a  plant  of 
the  Borage  family,  belonging  to  a  genus  not  far  removed  from  Lithospermum. 
These  beautiful  little  nutlets  may  well  be  called  pearl-seeds,  since  when  strung 
they  must  bear  a  close  resemblance  to  small  seed-pearls.  Accompanying  these 
is  a  small  longitudinally  grooved  dull  brown  seed,  somewhat  resembling  the 
seeds  of  the  bead  tree  ( Mclia  azederach)  in  form.  The  terminal  scar  is  removed 
by  the  perforation,  and  it  has  been  impossible  to  identify  this,  or  even  to  de¬ 
termine  to  what  botanical  family  it  belongs. 

Stone  beads  are  of  fine-grained  white  limestone,  lignite,  ser¬ 
pentine,  quartz,  hematite  and  alabaster.  Most  of  them  are  large, 
no  minute  beads,  such  as  those  from  Aztec  2  or  the  Upper  Gila,3 
occurring.  In  shape  they  run  from  the  flattened  spherical  type 
(figure  10,  a)  4  to  the  more  or  less  thickened  discoidal  form  (figure 
10,  c). 


1  See  also  Kidder-Guernsey,  1919,  plate  70,  k,  a  string  of  acorn  cups. 

2  Morris,  1919,  p.  99.  3  Hough,  1914,  p.  24. 

«  Wrongly  called  “hemispherical”  in  our  former  report  (p.  163). 


OF  NORTHEASTERN  ARIZONA 


49 


Most  of  the  shell  beads  were  made  from  olivellas  simply  by  cut¬ 
ting  off  the  end  of  the  spire.  There  are  in  one  of  the  strings  (plate 
25,  f)  seventy-five  very  thin  disc-shaped  beads,  A  of  an  inch  in  di¬ 
ameter  cut,  apparently,  from  the  shell  of  a  fresh-water  clam  (figure 
10,  f).  The  same  necklace  contains  one  hundred  shell  beads  made 
from  the  curving  wall  of  the  large  olivella  (figure  10,  g).  The 
saucer -like  form  of  these  allows  them  to  fit  closely  over  each  other 
when  strung.  Enormous  quantities  of  identical  beads  are  in  the 
Museum’s  collection  from  the  Channel  Islands,  California.  There 
are  a  few  small  bone  beads  (figure  10,  h)  apparently  made  in  imi¬ 
tation  of  these. 

Pendants.  These  were  less  common  in  the  burial  cists  of  White 
Dog  Cave  than  they  were  in  the  mortuary  cave  of  Sayodneechee.1 
The  single  stone  specimen  (plate  17,  h)  is  of  a  hard  brown  stone 
mottled  with  brownish  green;  the  surface  is  highly  polished  and 
has  a  waxy  texture. 

Four  shell  pendants  were  found,  all  of  abalone;  three  are  illus¬ 
trated  in  plate  17,  c,  d,  e;  the  fourth  is  attached  to  a  ceremonial 
object  (plate  39,  b).  The  largest  (plate  17,  c)  is  round  and  2 
inches  in  diameter.  Jt  has  two  perforations  in  the  center  from 
which  radiate  the  four  arms  of  an  incised  cross  figure.  Along 
the  edge  are  two  other  round  holes  and  three  pairs  of  minute 
perforations.  At  the  bottom  of  this  disc  there  is  a  drilled  hole 
which  has  been  stopped  up  by  inlaying  a  little  piece  of  abalone 
shell  carefully  shaped  to  fit  the  aperture.  The  second  abalone 
pendant  (plate  17,  d)  is  the  reused  half  of  a  disc  similar  to  the 
above;  it  fractured,  apparently,  along  an  incised  median  line. 
Traces  of  the  favorite  Basket-maker  zigzag  may  be  seen  along  the 
upper  edge  of  the  old  break.  The  third  specimen  (plate  17,  e)  is  a 
bit  of  the  thickened  rim  of  an  abalone,  the  edges  ground  down  and 
polished. 

Feathered  Pendant.  This  object  (plate  18,  f)  is  described  under 
the  head  of  personal  ornaments  although  it  may  have  served  some 
other,  possibly  ceremonial,  function.  It  consists  of  nine  two-ply 
twists  of  rawhide  thong,  seized  with  sinew  to  a  loop  of  the  same 
material.  Small  feathers,  whose  butts  alone  remain,  were  once 
fastened  to  the  ends  of  the  streamers.2 

1  See  Kidder-Guernsey,  1919,  p.  164. 

2  Compare  Kidder-Guernsey,  1919,  figure  77. 


50 


BASKET-MAKER  CAVES 


Ornament  of  Mountain-sheep  Horn.  This  object  (plate  17,  i) 
is  3  inches  long  by  2\  wide.  The  convex  side  shown  in  the  drawing 
bears,  besides  two  pairs  of  drilled  perforations,  a  double  series  of 
small  holes  which  do  not  run  through.  Incised  lines  drawn  be¬ 
tween  the  two  series,  seem  to  show  a  start  at  a  zigzag  decoration. 
The  toothed  ends  of  the  specimen  were  produced  by  sawing  broad 
notches  along  the  upper  and  lower  edges.  The  bottoms  of  the 
notches  are  well  worn  and  smooth,  but  whether  from  general  use 
or  from  friction  of  threads  (supposing  the  object  to  have  served  as 
a  weaving  comb),  we  do  not  know. 

Deer-hoof  Rattles.  As  in  the  preceding  two  cases,  the  identi¬ 
fication  of  these  specimens  (plate  17,  j,  k)  as  ornaments  is  open  to 
question;  a  ceremonial  use  is  quite  as  likely.  One  of  them  consists 
of  the  horny  outer  coverings  of  two  large  hoofs,  attached  to  the 
ends  of  a  buckskin  thong.1  The  other  shown  in  j  is  made  of  much 
smaller  hoofs;  these  are  fastened  to  the  ends  of  thongs  which 
themselves  are  looped  over  a  slim  pliable  twig  and  held  to  it  by  a 
twining  of  fine  cords.  This  is  an  incomplete  specimen,  as  is  an¬ 
other  similar  one  (not  figured,  A-2930)  which  had,  in  place  or  de¬ 
tached,  nearly  a  hundred  hoofs.  There  is  little  doubt  that  the 
stringing  together  of  these  dry  resonant  hoofs  was  done  to  produce 
a  rattling  sound,  but  whether  the  assemblages  were  employed  as 
belts,  as  fringes,  or  fastened  to  handles  to  form  true  rattles  we 
have  no  means  of  telling. 

Unfinished  Ornament.  This  object  (plate  35,  h,  i),  found  in  the 
general  digging  in  White  Dog  Cave,  is  a  neat  example  of  two  proc¬ 
esses  in  working  stone:  flaking  and  grinding.  The  specimen  is 
a  disc  of  grey  flint,  convex  on  both  sides.  It  was  first  chipped 
roughly  to  its  present  form,  then  ground  to  efface  the  chipped 
surface.  The  grinding  process  was,  however,  not  completed  and 
there  remain  on  either  side  marks  of  chipping,  as  well  as  numerous 
grinding  facets. 

Tablet.  Plate  17,  a,  shows,  partly  restored,  a  tablet-like  object 
of  compact  white  limestone  found  in  Cist  6,  White  Dog  Cave. 
The  pieces  fitted  together  have  a  length  of  7  inches,  but  a  number 
of  fragments  that  could  not  be  joined  show  that  the  original  length 
was  considerably  more;  the  greatest  width  is  3  inches,  the  thickness 


i  Modern  Hopi  hoof  rattles  are  figured  by  Hough  (1919,  plate  22). 


Peabody  Museum  Papers 


Vol.  VIII,  No.  2,  Plate  17 


White  Dog  Cave 

a,  Tablet-like  object  of  stone;  b.  Neck  ornament;  c,  d,  e,  Shell  pendants;  f,  g,  Object  of 
stone;  h,  Stone  pendant;  i,  Object  of  mountain-sheep  horn;  j,  k,  Hoof  rattles.  (About  J.) 


OF  NORTHEASTERN  ARIZONA 


51 


uniformly  A  of  an  inch.  The  edges  are  rounded  and  all  surfaces 
very  smoothly  worked  down  by  grinding.  The  fine  finish  and  the 
fragile  nature  of  this  object  seem  to  indicate  that  it  was  used  as  an 
ornament. 

Head  Ornaments.  An  object,  of  whose  function  we  are  not 
positive,  but  which  was  probably  used  to  decorate  the  hair,  was 
found  on  the  breast  of  mummy  2,  Cist  27  (plate  18,  b).  It  con¬ 
sists  of  five  neatly  made  bone  pins,  each  inches  long  and  a  little 
less  than  f  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  fastened  together  side  by  side. 
The  bindings  are  of  sinew ;  the  upper  set  is  overwrapped  with  fine 
fiber  cord  evidently  as  a  finish,  since  the  string,  though  badly  de¬ 
cayed,  shows  traces  of  a  central  red  band.  Projecting  from  the 
top,  and  held  by  the  wrappings  just  described,  were  bundles  of 
small  feathers,  of  which  only  the  butts  of  the  quills  and  traces 
of  the  pile  now  remain.1 

Figure  a,  plate  18,  shows  a  similar  ornament  from  Cist  6,  made 
up  of  three  wooden  pins  each  10  inches  long  and  J  of  an  inch  in 
diameter.  A  bundle  of  six  wooden  pins,  each  8  inches  in  length 
and  |  of  an  inch  thick,  possibly  ready  to  be  made  into  a  pair  of 
ornaments  like  the  ones  just  described,  is  figured  in  c.  A  number  of 
finely  fashioned  but  broken  bone  objects,  of  about  the  same  size 
and  shape  as  large  knitting  needles,  some  tied  up  in  bundles,  others 
loose,  were  found  in  the  course  of  the  excavations  in  White  Dog 
Cave;  most  of  them  show  signs  of  long  use.  These  no  doubt  are 
also  unassembled  parts  of  head  ornaments.  There  are  in  the  1915 
collection  similar  broken  bone  pins.2 

Just  how  these  contrivances  were  worn  we  do  not  know,  but 
from  their  comb-like  structure  we  judge  that  they  were  probably 
stuck  in  the  hair,  singly  or  in  pairs.  Some  basis  for  this  belief  is 
found  in  certain  Basket-maker  square-shouldered  pictographs  de¬ 
picted  with  objects  which  may  represent  ornaments  such  as  these 
protruding  from  their  heads.3  In  the  Peabody  Museum  there  is  a 
Paiute  “warrior’s  plume,”  made  of  five  wooden  pins  placed  side 
by  side  and  held  together  by  colored  strings  woven  about  them  in 
such  a  way  as  to  produce  a  simple  pattern;  this  specimen  is  not 
feathered,  but  is  otherwise  much  like  those  from  White  Dog  Cave. 

1  A  fairly  well-preserved  example  from  Grand  Gulch  is  in  the  American  Museum  of  Natural 
History,  New  York  (cat.  no.  H-13375). 

2  Kidder-Guernsey,  1919,  plate  86,  e. 

3  Ibid.,  figure  101. 


52 


BASKET-MAKER  CAVES 


In  the  Coahuila,  Mexico,  cave  collection  in  the  Museum  there  is 
an  arrangement  of  six  wooden  pins  which  may  be  either  a  head 
ornament  or  a  comb;  we  are  inclined  to  think  the  former,  as  the 
same  collection  contains  an  object  that  is  surely  a  comb,  con¬ 
structed  in  an  entirely  different  manner. 

The  object  shown  on  plate  18,  d,  may  be  an  ornament,  a  pro¬ 
jectile  for  a  dart  game,  or  possibly  a  ceremonial  object  ;  it  is  a  thin 
twig  with  three  small  feathers  seized  to  it  at  their  butts  and  tips 
by  sinew;  the  ends  of  the  stick  are  broken  off,  so  that  its  original 
length  is  unknown. 

Hair-dressing.  Several  of  the  mummies  from  White  Dog  Cave 
are  in  so  good  a  state  of  preservation  that  their  heads  still  retain 
the  hair,  dressed,  probably,  as  in  life  On  plate  19  are  illustrated 
the  various  methods;  figures  a,  b,  c  are  drawn  from  mummies,  and 
d,  is  restored  from  a  scalp  found  in  the  same  district  in  1915. 1 

Figure  a,  shows  the  simplest  manner  of  wearing  the  hair,  which 
in  this  case  is  cropped  to  an  average  length  of  2  inches.  The 
raggedness  of  this  haircut  is  apparently  the  result  of  gathering  to¬ 
gether  and  hacking  off  a  single  lock  at  a  time.  The  individual  in 
question  was  a  female  about  twenty  years  of  age  found  in  Cist 
22  (mummy  2). 

Figure  b,  shows  the  arrangement  of  the  hair  of  an  adult  male  from 
Cist  24.  It  is  parted  in  the  center  from  forehead  to  crown  and  falls 
loose  on  either  side;  that  of  the  back  of  the  head  is  gathered  into  a 
queue,  the  end  of  which  is  turned  back  on  itself  and  wrapped  for  a 
space  of  2  inches  with  a  fine  string.  From  the  crown  there  hangs 
a  lock  the  thickness  of  a  pencil  closely  wound  with  string  for  nearly 
its  entire  length.2  The  end  of  this  tress  is  bound  up  with  the  end  of 
the  queue.  Where  this  lock  grows  from  the  scalp,  the  surrounding 
hair  is  clipped  away  for  a  little  space. 

Figure  c,  is  drawn  from  the  head  of  a  male  about  twenty-five 
years  old,  from  Cist  22.  The  hair  is  arranged  as  follows:  from  a 
strip  1|  inches  wide  straight  back  from  the  middle  of  the  forehead 
the  hair  has  been  cut  off  close  to  the  scalp.  This  exaggerated 
“  part  ”  terminates  at  the  crown  in  a  circular  tonsure  in  the  center 
of  which  there  is  a  thin  lock  of  long  hair.  The  hair  on  either  side 

1  For  pictures  of  this  interesting  specimen,  and  for  a  description  of  its  preparation,  see  Kidder- 
Guernsey,  1919,  plates  S7,  S8,  and  pp.  190-192. 

3  As  was  noted  on  p.  13,  a  section  of  a  similar  lock  wound  spirally  with  a  leather  cord  was 
found  in  Cist  6,  White  Dog  Cave. 


Peabody  Museum  Papers 


Vol.  VIII,  No.  2,  Plate  18 


White  Dog  Cave 

a,  b,  d-g,  Feather  ornaments;  c,  Package  of  wooden  pins,  probably  used  in  making 
feather  ornaments.  (About  J.) 


OF  NORTHEASTERN  ARIZONA 


53 


of  the  “  part  ”  is  gathered  together  and  tightly  bound  3f  inches 
from  the  ends  with  fine  human  hair  string;  these  tresses  hang  in 
front  of  the  ears.  The  back  hair,  which  is  about  14  inches  long,  is 
similarly  gathered  together  and  bound  near  the  end  for  a  space  of 
2  inches.  The  lock  from  the  center  of  the  tonsure  is  included  in 
this  binding. 

The  following  description  of  the  scalp  shown  in  d,  is  quoted  from 
our  previous  report: 1  “  A  ‘  part  ’  1  inch  wide,  from  which  the  hair 
has  been  clipped,  runs  up  to  a  large  semilunar  tonsure  at  the  crown. 
The  brow  tresses  on  either  side  are  gathered  together  in  ‘  bobs  ’ 
that  fall  in  front  of  or  over  the  ears,  and  are  tied  up  with  wrappings 
of  apocynum  (?)  string.  The  long  hair  from  just  behind  the  ton- 
sure  is  braided  into  a  thin  plait,  the  lower  end  of  which  is  doubled 
back  on  itself  and  bound  with  hair  string.  The  remainder  of  the 
back  hair  is  made  into  a  single  short  thick  ‘  bob,’  string-wrapped, 
that  falls  to  the  nape  of  the  neck.”  As  shown  in  the  drawing  this 
specimen  combines  features  of  both  figures  b  and  c,  but  is  more 
elaborate  than  either.  It  seems  to  have  been  preserved  as  a  trophy 
and  for  this  reason,  when  discussing  it  in  the  earlier  report,  we 
were  in  doubt  as  to  whether  it  represented  a  method  of  hair¬ 
dressing  practised  by  the  Basket-makers,  or  that  of  some  tribe  of 
which  we  had  no  knowledge.  The  side-bobs  inclined  us  to  the 
belief  that  it  was  a  Basket-maker  style,  as  Basket-maker  picto- 
graphs  are  often  shown  with  “  bobs  ”  on  either  side  of  the  head. 
The  finds  from  White  Dog  Cave  serve  of  course  to  confirm  this 
idea. 

Although  many  tribes  shaved  one  portion  or  another  of  the  head, 
and  the  thin  scalp-lock  was  not  an  unusual  thing,  we  can  find  no 
reference  to  analogous  coiffures  ancient  or  modern  with  the  ex¬ 
ception  of  those  of  the  Maya  thus  described  by  Bishop  Landa: 

They  wore  their  hair  long,  like  women.  On  the  top  they  burned  a  sort  of 
tonsure;  they  let  the  hair  grow  around  it,  while  the  hair  of  the  tonsure  re¬ 
mained  short.  They  bound  the  hair  in  braids  about  the  head  with  the  excep¬ 
tion  of  one  lock,  which  they  allowed  to  hang  down  behind  like  a  tassel.2 

Judging  from  our  material  it  would  seem  that  the  men  dressed 
their  hair  more  elaborately  than  did  the  women. 


1  Kidder-Guernsey,  1919,  p.  191. 


s  ScheUhas,  1904,  p.  617. 


54 


BASKET-MAKER  CAVES 


CRADLES  AND  ACCESSORIES 

Rigid  Cradles.  It  seems  well,  before  taking  up  the  several 
empty  cradles  in  the  collection,  to  describe  the  one  case  in  which 
we  have  the  baby  with  all  its  wrappings  still  in  place.  The  bundle 
is  shown  as  found  in  plate  4,  g,  and  plate  21,  c;  its  different  parts 
are  separated  and  spread  out  in  the  other  figures  of  the  former  plate. 
The  infant,  enveloped  in  robes,  is  tied  in  by  means  of  a  criss-cross 
lashing.  The  binding  cord  is  of  human  hair,  four-ply  and  5  feet 
long  (plate  4,  i) ;  it  is  rove  through  a  series  of  string  loops  that  are 
attached  to  the  sides  of  the  cradle.  The  seven  stout  cords  that 
may  be  seen  hanging  loose  on  the  left  side  of  the  unwrapped  bundle 
(plate  4,  g  and  plate  21,  c),  and  laid  out  separately  in  h,  had  prob¬ 
ably  been  used  for  hanging  up  or  transporting  the  cradle;  if  the 
baby  had  not  died  so  soon  (it  can  hardly  be  more  than  a  few  days 
old),  these  cords  would  undoubtedly  have  been  woven  into  a  regular 
carrying  strap  like  those  shown  in  plate  23,  k,  1. 

The  outermost  wrapping  is  a  much  tattered  remnant  of  woven 
cloth  (plate  4,  a) ;  it  is  described  on  page  63.  The  second  cover  is 
a  fur-string  baby  blanket,  measuring  17  by  17  inches.  The  body 
of  the  robe  is  of  cords  overlaid  with  strips  of  rabbit  skin,  its  outer 
sides  have  a  border,  two  strands  in  width,  made  of  string,  between 
the  plies  of  which  are  caught  bunches  of  long,  coarse  hair,  probably 
dog.  AYe  have  called  coverings  of  this  sort  baby  blankets  because 
they  were  obviously  woven  to  their  peculiar  bifurcated  shape  for 
the  special  purpose  of  leaving  an  opening  at  the  place  where  they 
would  otherwise  constantly  have  been  wet  and  soiled.  Inside  this 
blanket  there  was  another  of  exactly  the  same  size  and  shape; 
(plate  4,  f)  but,  because  it  was  to  hold  the  baby  itself,  much  softer 
and  more  carefully  made.  It  is  also  of  string,  wound  with  strips  of 
Huffy  white  fur  from  the  bellies  of  rabbits.  In  handling  this  speci¬ 
men,  one  is  so  impressed  by  the  freshness  of  the  fur  that  it  is  diffi¬ 
cult  to  reconcile  its  perfect  condition  to  its  great  antiquity. 

The  mummy  of  the  infant  (plate  4,  c)  lay  on  this  inner  blanket 
with  the  lower  side-pieces  folded  over  its  legs.  It  was  provided 
with  a  loose  bundle  of  shredded  cedar  bark  to  serve  as  a  diaper 
(c).  On  the  abdomen,  covering  the  navel,  was  a  pad  (d),  made  of 
cedar  bark  sewed  up  in  prairie-dog  skin,  the  hair  side  out.  This 
obviously  acted  as  a  binder  to  prevent  rupture.  The  umbilical 


Peabody  Museum  Papers 


Vol.  VIII,  No.  2,  Plate  19 


Styles  of  hair-dressing  as  shown  by  the  remains  from  Basket-maker  caves. 


OF  NORTHEASTERN  ARIZONA 


55 


cord  itself  had  been  dried  and  was  attached  by  a  string  to  one 
corner  of  the  outer  baby  blanket,  so  that  it  hung  directly  before 
the  face  of  the  infant ; 1  it  may  be  seen  at  the  upper  right-hand 
edge  of  the  blanket  (b). 

The  cradle  (i)  is  14  inches  long  and  10  inches  wide.  The  frame  is 
a  single  unpeeled  withe,  f  inch  in  diameter,  bent  into  an  approxi¬ 
mate  oval.  The  body  is  made  of  fifty  straight,  unpeeled  twigs 
placed  close  together;  these  run  transversely  and  are  fastened 
underneath  the  frame  by  a  continuous  lashing  of  fiber  string. 
Along  each  side  of  the  cradle  there  extends  a  stout  cord,  fastened 
to  the  hoop  at  intervals  and  forming  loose  loops  for  the  attachment 
of  the  binder  that  held  the  baby  and  its  wrappings  in  place. 

This  cradle  is  much  the  smallest  in  the  collection  and  is  crudely 
made.  It  shows  none  of  the  careful  finish  and  ornamental  features 
of  the  specimens  about  to  be  described.  The  uncompleted  carrying 
strap,  the  roughly  put-together  umbilical  pad  and  the  small  size 
of  the  baby  itself  all  point  to  the  probability  of  birth  having  taken 
place  before  the  usual  elaborate  “  layette  ”  was  ready. 

There  are  five  other  more  or  less  complete  cradles  in  the  collec¬ 
tion,  all  of  which  were  found  in  White  Dog  Cave.  Four  had  been 
buried  with  babies  upon  them  but  disturbance  in  some  cases  and 
decay  in  others  rendered  it  impossible  to  recover  the  “  mummy 
bundles”  in  their  original  condition;  the  fifth  cradle  was  found 
in  rude  Cist  54  (plate  5,  a)  that  contained  no  bones.  While  these 
specimens  are  all  much  alike  in  general  make-up,  they  differ  con¬ 
siderably  in  details.  As  no  account  of  a  rigid  Basket-maker  cradle 
has  yet  been  published,  it  seems  worth  while  to  describe  each  one 
of  this  exceptionally  well-preserved  lot. 

The  handsomest  cradle  is  the  one  illustrated,  front  and  back,  in 
plate  20,  a,  b.  It  is  23|  inches  long,  by  14|  inches  wide  at  the 
broadest  part.  The  rim  is  composed  of  two  trimmed  and  peeled 
hardwood  sticks  \  inch  in  diameter,  each  bent  into  a  U ;  the  open 
ends  of  the  two  U-shaped  pieces  are  spliced  together  with  their  sides 
overlapping  a  little;  tight  ligatures  hold  them  in  that  position, 
and  so  envelop  the  joined  ends  that  they  cannot  be  seen.  The 

1  As  recorded  by  Catlin  in  1842,  Vol.  II,  p.  133.  The  custom  of  preserving  the  cord  as  a 
charm  was  practised  by  many  tribes,  particularly  those  of  the  plains.  The  Ute,  Dakota,  Ara- 
paho,  and  Gros  Ventre  enclosed  the  dried  cord  in  more  or  less  elaborate  coverings  of  skin  orna¬ 
mented  with  quill  or  bead  work  and  fashioned  usually  to  represent  reptiles.  These  were  hung 
on  the  front  of  the  cradle  (see  Kroeber,  1908,  pp.  166, 167). 


56 


BASKET-MAKER  CAVES 


body  of  the  cradle  is  made  of  two  series  of  slim  willow  twigs,  from 
which  the  bark  has  been  scraped.  The  transverse  rods  are  ninety- 
nine  in  number;  they  are  laid  as  close  together  as  they  will  fit  and 
are  fastened  at  their  ends  to  the  under  side  of  the  frame  by  a  con¬ 
tinuous  figure-eight  lashing  of  yucca  string.  This  binding  is  over¬ 
wrapped  with  soft  fiber,  until  the  slightly  protruding  ends  of  the 
rods  are  entirely  hidden,  and  each  side  of  the  cradle  is  built  up 
into  a  soft,  bolster-like  roll  an  inch  in  thickness;  this  in  turn  is 
sewed  up  in  a  cover  of  deer  or  mountain-sheep  hide  dressed  with 
the  hair  on.  The  hard  sides  of  the  hoop  and  the  sharp  projecting 
rod  ends  are  thus  completely  padded  and  form  a  sort  of  rim  along 
the  two  edges  of  the  cradle  on  its  upper  surface. 

The  second,  or  longitudinal,  set  of  rods  consists  of  five  twigs 
running  up  the  middle  of  the  transverse  rods  and  attached  to  them 
by  a  lashing  of  heavy  sinew,  so  arranged  as  to  produce  the  zigzag 
design  seen  in  the  photograph.  The  ends  of  the  longitudinal  twigs 
are  fastened  to  the  head  and  foot  of  the  hoop  in  some  manner  which 
cannot  be  made  out,  because  the  attachment  is  padded  and  tightly 
sewed  up  in  a  hide  covering. 

Tied  around  the  bottom  of  the  hoop  there  is  a  horse-shoe  shaped 
roll  of  cedar  bark,  which  must  have  formed  a  kind  of  soft  platform 
for  the  baby’s  feet  to  rest  against  when  the  cradle  was  held  up¬ 
right.  A  series  of  human  hair  strings  are  caught  into  the  “bolsters” 
along  the  sides  of  the  cradle;  these,  like  the  loops  on  the  specimens 
first  described,  were  to  hold  the  laced  binding  cord.  At  the  head 
and  foot  are  much  longer  loops,  designed,  apparently,  for  suspend¬ 
ing  the  cradle  in  a  horizontal  position.1 

A  double  yucca  string  is  tightly  stretched  across  the  upper  surface 
of  the  cradle  about  8  inches  above  the  foot.  From  just  below 
this  string  to  the  foot,  the  cradle  is  much  discolored  by  the  excreta 
of  the  baby.  The  purpose  of  the  string  was  probably  to  hold  in 
place  the  rather  inefficient  diaper-bundles  of  cedar  bark  or  fiber. 

Plate  20,  c,  d,  illustrates  a  cradle  very  similar  in  shape  to  the 
above;  its  measurements,  23 £  by  14 \  inches,  are  almost  identical; 
the  hoop  is  also  made  of  two  pieces  tied  together  at  the  sides.  The 
backing  is  of  reeds  instead  of  twigs;  there  are  eighty-three  in  the 
transverse  series  and  twenty-two  in  the  longitudinal,  the  latter  is 
secured  to  the  former  by  narrow  rawhide  thongs  whose  emergences 


1  See  Saunders,  1912,  photograph  facing  p.  86. 


Peabody  Museum  Papers 


Vol.  VIII,  No.  2,  Plate  20 


White  Dog  Cave 

a,  b,  Front  and  back  of  cradle,  Cist  35;  c,  d,  Front  and  back  of  cradle,  Cist  54.  (About  1/9.) 


OF  NORTHEASTERN  ARIZONA 


57 


produce  a  pattern  of  diamond  figures.  The  longitudinal  reeds 
were  once  attached  to  the  head  and  foot  of  the  bow,  but  their  ends 
are  now  missing.  The  sides  are  padded  with  fiber  and  covered  with 
hide,  and  there  are  the  remnants  of  a  cedar-bark  foot  rest.  The 
ends  of  a  diaper  string  are  present,  but  there  are  no  side  loops  for 
the  laced  binding  cord. 

The  remaining  three  specimens  are  more  nearly  oval  than  the 
two  preceding.  The  largest  one  (plate  21,  b)  is  25  inches  long  by 
12  inches  wide.  Viewed  from  the  side  it  is  rocker-shaped,  but  this 
curve  is  probably  due  to  warping.  The  frame  and  its  side-padding 
(mostly  decayed)  offer  no  new  features,  nor  does  the  method  of 
attachment  of  the  seventy-nine  transverse  willow  backing-rods. 
As  will  be  seen  in  the  plate,  the  longitudinal  rods  are  differently 
arranged;  they  are  in  two  sets  of  six  each,  spaced  well  apart  and 
curving  away  from  each  other  as  they  approach  the  head  of  the 
cradle  where  each  set  is  bent  about  the  side  of  the  frame  and  tied 
back  on  itself;  the  lower  attachments  are  gone.  The  diamond- 
pattern  lashings  that  hold  the  longitudinal  to  the  transverse  rods 
are  of  strips  of  rawhide.  Between  the  two  longitudinal  sets,  and 
also  alongside  them,  the  transverse  rods  are  bound  together  by  a 
sort  of  over-eight-under-eight  twilling  of  leather  thongs  painted 
red.  Side  loops  and  diaper  string  have  disappeared ;  the  mark  of 
the  latter,  however,  can  be  made  out  on  the  backing,  and  below  it 
there  are  as  usual  heavy  stains  and  caked  mud. 

The  cradle  shown  in  plate  21,  a,  is  from  the  same  cist  as  the  fore¬ 
going.  It  is  an  elongated  oval,  19  §  by  10 \  inches.  Of  the  two 
sticks  bent  to  form  its  frame,  the  upper  one  is  peeled,  the  lower 
unpeeled.  The  sides  are  padded  into  the  usual  long  rolls,  but 
there  is  no  evidence  that  they  were  ever  encased  in  skin;  no  loops 
or  diaper  string  remain.  The  transverse  twigs  are  ninety-eight  in 
number;  the  first  seventeen,  counting  from  the  top,  are  in  natural 
color;  then  comes  a  row  of  eight  rods  dyed  black,  then  eight 
in  natural  color,  eight  black,  eight  natural,  eight  black,  eight 
natural,  and  eight  black;  the  last  twenty-five  to  the  bottom  are 
undyed.  The  eight  longitudinal  twigs  are  not  attached  to  the 
transverse  ones  by  the  usual  ornamental  bindings.  They  are 
turned  about  the  frame  at  the  head  of  the  cradle  and  tied  back  on 
themselves;  at  the  bottom  they  are  cut  off  at  the  level  of  the  last 
transverse  element  and  their  ends  are  made  fast  to  it  by  a  row  of 
twined  yucca  string. 


58 


BASKET-MAKER  CAVES 


The  last  of  the  three  oval  cradles  is  21  §  inches  long,  and  11^ 
inches  across.  The  two  sticks  of  its  frame  are  unpeeled.  There  are 
seventy-seven  transverse  rods  (willow  twigs,  scraped  and  trimmed 
as  usual)  and  seven  longitudinal  ones,  bound  to  the  former  with 
the  conventional  diamond  pattern  of  thong-emergences;  their 
attachments  to  the  top  and  bottom  of  the  frame  have  been  broken 
off.  The  frame  padding  along  the  sides  is  of  string  and  yucca  fiber, 
and  was  once  encased  in  hide.  There  are  no  side-loops,  but  the 
diaper  string  is  still  in  place,  stretched  tightly  across  the  upper 
surface  of  the  cradle  at  a  point  one-third  of  the  distance  from  the 
head  to  the  foot. 

Flexible  Cradles.  These  are  of  two  types.  The  first  has  a  rim 
made  of  a  long  thin  bundle  of  grass  rolled  tight,  tied  with  yucca 
leaves  and  bent  to  the  same  shape  as  the  wooden  hoop  of  the  rigid 
cradle.  The  body  or  filling  is  a  rough  mesh  of  yucca  leaves.  The 
second  type  is  a  sort  of  mat  made  from  long  strips  of  cedar  bark 
held  together  by  twined-woven  rows  of  yucca  leaves;  the  edges  of 
the  mat  are  turned  up  and  fastened  together  by  a  yucca  network. 
Both  types  are  illustrated  and  more  fully  described  in  the  report 
on  the  1914-1915  expeditions; 1  all  the  specimens  recovered  in 
1916-1917  were  very  fragmentary,  but  enough  of  them  were  found 
to  show  that  these  cradles  were  in  common  use. 

Umbilical  Pads.  During  the  early  part  of  the  1916  season  there 
were  taken  from  the  graves  of  infants  a  number  of  flat  pads,  made 
by  sewing  up  various  substances  in  covers  of  prairie-dog  hide. 
Their  use,  at  first  doubtful,  was  made  clear  when  the  well-preserved 
baby  burial  from  Cist  13  was  examined,  and  a  similar  pad  (plate  4, 
d)  was  found  lying  against  the  navel  of  the  infant;  a  second  case 
(infant  from  Cist  35)  was  discovered  later.  It  was  then  obvious 
that  all  these  specimens  had  been  used  as  are  our  modern  “  binders” 
to  prevent  umbilical  hernia  by  exerting  pressure  on  the  navel  of 
the  new-born  child. 

Each  of  these  pads  has  a  light  but  rigid  or  semi-rigid  core,  most 
commonly  made  of  five  or  six  corncobs  cut  to  equal  length  and 
bound  together  side  by  side;  several  examples  are  whittled  from 
slabs  of  yellow-pine  bark  (plate  22,  c) ; 2  still  others  consist  of  a 
rope  or  tight  twist  of  cedar  bark,  coiled  and  sewed  to  itself  to  form 

1  Kidder-Guernsey,  1919,  pp.  165,  166;  plates  71,  b;  72,  a,  b. 

2  The  piece  of  bark  figured  in  our  first  report  (Kidder-Guernsey,  1919,  plate  85,  b),  and 
classed  as  problematical  is  one  of  these. 


Peabody  Museum  Papers 


Vol.  VIII,  No.  2,  Plate  21 


White  Dog  Cave 

a,  b,  Cradles;  c,  Cradle  containing  mummy  of  child,  Cist  13;  d,  Package  containing 
mummy  of  child,  Cist  35.  (About  1/10.) 


OF  NORTHEASTERN  ARIZONA 


59 


a  small  oval  mat  (plate  22,  b) ;  in  one  case  a  thin  slab  of  sandstone 
is  used.1  The  crudest  were  wads  of  cedar  bark  or  grass.  The  cores 
were  wrapped  and  padded  with  shredded  cedar  bark,  more  or  less 
thickly  according  to  their  hardness,  and  were  finally  enclosed  in 
prairie-dog  skin  covers  prepared  as  follows  (plate  22,  a) ;  the  com¬ 
plete  hide  was  trimmed  by  cutting  away  the  feet  and  tail,  and 
shaped  into  a  long  bag  with  the  fur  outside.  The  padded  core  was 
placed  in  the  bottom  of  this,  the  upper  part  folded  down,  and  the 
whole  neatly  sewed  up  with  sinew  or  fine  fiber  thread.  There  is 
one  specimen  (plate  31,  a)  to  which  is  still  attached  the  narrow 
human  hair  string  band  that  formerly  held  it  in  place  against  the 
abdomen  of  the  infant. 


BASKETRY 

Coiled  Basketry.  The  Basket-maker  culture  was  so  named  by 
the  Wetherill  brothers  because  of  the  abundance  of  baskets  found 
in  the  graves.  The  burials  of  this  people  excavated  by  the  Pea¬ 
body  Museum  expeditions  in  Marsh  Pass  ran  true  to  type  in  this 
respect  as  in  all  others;  and,  wherever  the  cists  were  protected 
from  moisture  and  undisturbed  by  ancient  looters,  fine  specimens 
were  always  to  be  found,  while  throughout  the  general  digging  in 
the  caves  fragments  of  worn-out  baskets  were  encountered  in 
great  abundance. 

All  the  specimens  recovered  were  of  the  coiled  variety,  no  case 
of  twining,  checkerwork,  or  wickerwork  having  been  found;  a 
single  twilled  example,  in  reality  more  like  a  flexible  pouch  than 
a  true  basket,  will  be  described  later.  In  weave  the  coiled  baskets 
form  a  very  homogeneous  group ;  they  are  made  over  a  foundation 
consisting  of  two  slim  osiers  laid  side  by  side,  with  a  padding  or 
welt  of  yucca  fiber  or  shredded  roots.  The  sewing  elements  are 
wooden  splints  averaging  a  little  less  than  |  inch  wide ;  they  enclose 
the  rods  and  the  fibrous  padding  bundle  and  also  pass  through 
about  half  of  the  bundle  of  the  coil  below.  It  is  this  gripping  of  the 
bundle  of  the  lower  coil  which  alone  holds  the  fabric  together,  as 
the  stitches  of  one  coil  never  interlock  with  those  of  the  coil  below 
them.2  While  the  weave  is  so  solid  and  compact  that  many  of  the 

1  For  a  description  of  this  specimen  see  Kidder-Guernsey,  1919,  p.  192;  its  use  was  then 
unknown  to  us. 

2  For  a  diagram  of  the  weave,  see  Kidder-Guernsey,  1919,  figure  80. 


60 


BASKET-MAKER  CAVES 


better  pieces  must  have  been  watertight,  it  never  attains  the  fine¬ 
ness  of  texture  seen  in  many  California  coiled  baskets.  These 
ancient  weavers  strove,  apparently,  for  strength  and  serviceability 
rather  than  for  refinement  of  technic.  No  more  stitches  than 
necessary  were  used;  hence  the  relatively  great  width  of  the  in¬ 
dividual  sewing  splints  and  their  broad  spacing,  which  allows  the 
foundation  to  appear  between  them.  The  average  tray  basket  has 
five  coils  to  the  inch  and  nine  to  eleven  stitches  along  each  inch  of 
coil;  the  finest  specimen  has  eight  coils  and  twelve  stitches;  the 
coarsest,  a  fragment  from  a  large  pannier,  has  coils  \  inch  wide  and 
six  to  seven  stitches  to  the  inch  of  coil.  The  edge  bindings  of  all 
the  baskets  save  one  are  in  simple  wrapping;  the  exception  is  a 
bowl-shaped  piece  (plate  23,  i)  in  which  the  entire  rim  is  finished 
in  “  false-braid  ”  as  in  Navajo  baskets.1 

Our  specimens  fall  into  the  following  five  classes: 

1.  Trays  4.  Water  baskets 

2.  Bowls  5.  Trinket  baskets 

3.  Carrying  baskets 

Trays.  This  is  by  far  the  commonest  type.  The  examples  are 
very  flat,  and  run  from  12  to  24  inches  in  diameter.  They  were 
probably  used  for  the  serving  of  food,  and  perhaps  in  gambling. 
One  tray  (plate  23,  j)  obviously  had  another  purpose;  about  its 
rim  at  equal  distances  apart  were  four  loops,  two  of  which  remain 
(the  others  were  in  place  when  found,  but  soon  crumbled  away). 
Each  loop  is  made  of  a  twig  tied  into  a  circle  2  inches  in  diameter 
and  is  attached  to  the  rim  of  the  basket  by  a  short  buckskin  thong. 
The  whole  interior  of  the  tray  shows  much  wear,  particularly  severe 
at  the  bottom  where,  indeed,  it  had  begun  to  give  out  and  was  re¬ 
enforced  by  overstitching  with  new  splints,  which  themselves 
were  partly  worn  through.  The  outside  and  bottom  exhibit  no 
wear  at  all.  It  seems  likely  that  this  basket  was  suspended  by  the 
loops  and  used  for  the  simultaneous  hulling  and  winnowing  of 
seeds  too  delicate  to  be  shelled  in  a  mortar.  The  process  might 
have  been  to  keep  a  stone  rolling  among  the  seeds  by  shaking  the 
suspended  tray,  and  to  blow  off  the  hulls  as  they  were  detached  by 

1  For  details  of  this  stitch,  see  Mason,  1904,  figure  197.  A  Basket-maker  basket  from  Grand 
Gulch,  in  which  the  last  inch  of  the  terminal  coil  is  done  in  “false-braid”  is  mentioned  by 
Pepper  (1902,  p.  16);  exactly  the  same  treatment  appears  in  a  basket  from  Step  House,  Mesa 
Verde  (Nordenskiold,  1893.  plate  XLIV,  4);  Diegueno  and  Kawia  (southern  California) 
tray  baskets  also  have  the  last  inch  of  coil  in  ‘  false-braid”  (Peabody  Museum  Collections). 


Peabody  Museum  Papers 


Vol.  VIII,  No.  2,  Plate  22 


White  Dog  Cave 

a,  Covering  for  umbilical  pad;  b,  c.  Umbilical  pads.  (About  f.) 


OF  NORTHEASTERN  ARIZONA 


61 


the  bruising  of  the  stone.  This  explanation  is,  of  course,  pure 
guesswork,  but  it  seems  to  account  satisfactorily  for  the  presence 
of  the  loops  and  for  the  excessive  wear  on  the  inside. 

Bowls.  As  will  be  seen  in  the  illustrations  (plate  23,  a,  c,  f)  these 
baskets  are  of  lesser  diameter  than  the  trays  and  of  much  greater 
depth;  their  bottoms  are  flat  and  the  sides  rise  more  or  less  steeply. 
The  largest  is  14  inches  wide  at  the  mouth,  by  8  inches  deep.  We 
believe  that  some  of  the  larger  bowls  were  used  for  boiling  by  the 
hot  stone  method,  as  two  examples  are  heavily  daubed  with  a 
mixture  of  mud  and  ashes  applied,  apparently,  to  render  them 
watertight;  they  also  have  a  soiled  and  battered  look  and  many 
patches  that  indicate  hard  use. 

Carrying  Baskets.  These  are  the  largest  of  the  coiled  baskets, 
measuring  28  to  30  inches  in  diameter  at  the  top,  by  17  to  20  inches 
deep.  They  have  pointed  bottoms,  oval  in  cross-section;  and 
widely  flaring  upper  parts  (plate  23,  k,  1).  By  actual  count  of  coils 
and  stitches  to  the  inch  these  are  the  coarsest  of  the  baskets,  yet 
they  are  as  carefully  and  regularly  woven  as  the  finest;  are  very 
strong,  but  flexible  enough  to  adapt  themselves  to  the  curves  of 
the  neck  and  shoulders  of  their  bearers.  There  is  no  doubt  that 
they  served  as  panniers  for  carrying  loads  on  the  back;  their  shape 
and  the  use  of  similar  forms  by  modern  tribes  are  sufficient  indica¬ 
tions.  The  identification,  however,  is  rendered  certain  by  the  fact 
that  they  all  have  pairs  of  loops,  usually  of  human  hair  string, 
worked  into  their  sides  at  the  proper  height  for  the  attachment  of 
head  bands.  In  two  specimens  these  bands  are  still  in  place.  The 
common  use  of  these  panniers  to  cover  interments  is,  of  course,  a 
secondary  one. 

Water  Baskets.  The  excavations  of  1916-1917  produced  no 
whole  specimen  of  this  type,  yet  fragments  of  oval  bottoms  of  a 
finer  weave  than  is  usual  in  panniers  seem  to  indicate  that  such 
baskets  were  not  rare.  A  fine  example  from  Cave  II,  Kinboko,  is 
figured  in  our  former  report.  Dimensions :  total  height  17  inches, 
greatest  diameter  14f  inches,  orifice  4|  inches.  It  has  an  elongated 
base,  oval  in  cross-section.  The  upper  part  flares  out  and  becomes 
round;  it  is  constricted  again  at  the  top,  and  the  orifice  is  small. 
There  does  not  seem  to  have  been  a  neck,  but  there  is  some  evi¬ 
dence  that  there  was  once  a  string-hinged  cover.  On  opposite 
sides,  just  below  the  point  of  greatest  diameter,  are  pairs  of  carry- 


62 


BASKET-MAKER  CAVES 


ing  loops  made  by  twisting  into  a  heavy  cord  eight  or  ten  two- 
strand  human  hair  strings.  The  entire  inner  surface  of  the  basket 
is  thickly  pitched  with  pinon  gum,  and  the  same  material  has  been 
daubed  on  such  parts  of  the  exterior  as  had  begun  to  wear  through. 
A  design  of  small  stepped  units  may  be  faintly  made  out  on  the 
upper  curve.1 

Trinket  Baskets.  These  are  neatly  made  little  receptacles  with 
round  bodies  and  small  orifices.  The  range  of  sizes  and  shapes  is 
shown  in  the  illustrations  (plates  23,  h,  and  24,  d).  It  is  prob¬ 
able  that  these  baskets  were  put  to  a  variety  of  uses;  many  of 
those  found  in  the  graves  contained  small  trinkets  of  one  sort  or 
another. 

Decoration.  Baskets  of  all  the  above  types  were  ornamented 
with  designs  in  black.  Red  elements,  reported  by  Pepper 2  in 
Grand  Gulch  baskets,  are  not  found  in  our  collection.  The  designs 
are  of  great  interest  because  they  are  without  much  doubt  the 
oldest  examples  of  basketry  ornamentation  that  have  yet  come  to 
light  in  the  United  States.  Furthermore,  they  illustrate  the  deco¬ 
rative  art  of  a  people  who  preceded  the  pottery-making  tribes  of 
the  region,  and  so  may  eventually  be  expected  to  throw  light  on  the 
vexed  question  of  whether  or  not  southwestern  pottery  designs 
developed  from  those  of  basketry.  We  give,  accordingly,  all  the 
decorations  that  are  sufficiently  well-preserved  to  copy  (plate  24). 
These,  together  with  the  fine  series  of  baskets  figured  by  Pepper,3 
will  give  the  reader  a  very  good  idea  of  the  make-up  of  the  designs. 
Descriptions  of  the  patterns  tell  no  more  than  do  the  pictures,  and 
any  attempt  to  supply  symbolical  meanings  to  designs  as  old  as 
these  would  naturally  be  pure  guesswork.  We  have  made  notes 
towards  a  comparative  study  of  these  and  the  designs  of  the  baskets 
from  the  Plateau  and  Pacific  Coast  areas,  but  they  are  as  yet  far 
from  complete,  nor  have  we  space  in  this  publication  to  present  the 
mass  of  data  which  has  already  accumulated.  It  may  be  said, 
however,  that  the  art  as  a  whole  seems  to  find  its  nearest  parallel 
in  that  of  the  central  and  northern  California  tribes.  In  technic, 
on  the  other  hand,  the  baskets  most  closely  resemble  those  of  the 
Paiute. 

1  Kidder-Guernsey,  1919,  p.  170  and  plate  78. 

2  1902,  p.  15. 

3  Ibid.,  the  same  pictures  may  also  be  found  in  Mason,  1904,  a  more  accessible  publication, 
plates  84,  104,  and  205  to  211  inclusive. 


Peabody  Museum  Papers 


Vol.  VIII,  No.  2,  Plate  23 


Baskets:  All  from  White  Dog  Cave  with  the  exception  of  h,  which  is  from  Cave  1, 
Kinboko  Canyon,  Marsh  Pass.  (About  1/16.) 


OF  NORTHEASTERN  ARIZONA 


63 


Twilled  Basketry.  The  only  specimen  in  this  weave  is  a  flexible 
bag-like  basket  of  yucca  leaves  with  flattened  spherical  body  and 
small  mouth.  Although  it  is  fragmentary,  the  following  measure¬ 
ments  are  approximately  correct:  width  8|  inches;  depth  4§ 
inches;  diameter  of  aperture  4  inches.  It  is  made  of  entire  leaves 
of  Yucca  angustifolia ;  the  butts  of  the  leaves  are  turned  outward 
over  a  heavy  fiber  cord  that  rings  the  mouth  of  the  basket,  and  are 
fastened  by  twined  strings.  The  long  ends  of  the  leaves  are  then 
plaited  together,  over- two-under-two,  to  form  the  body.  The 
bottom  is  not  woven,  the  last  couple  of  inches  of  the  leaves  being 
simply  laid  across  each  other  and  tied  in  that  position  with  string 
(plate  23,  b). 

Although  the  over-two-under-two  weave  is  the  same,  this  speci¬ 
men  is  entirely  different  from  the  twilled  ring  baskets  so  abundantly 
found  in  cliff-houses.1  The  latter  are  always  bowl-shaped  and  have 
a  wooden  hoop  at  the  edge.  They  are  fabricated  upwards  from  the 
bottom;  not,  as  in  this  case,  downwards  from  the  rim.  No  trace 
of  ring  baskets  has  yet  come  to  light  in  our  excavations  in  Basket- 
maker  caves;  a  bit  of  twilled  work  found  in  Cave  1,  1915, 2  was 
probably  part  of  a  flexible  bag-basket  like  the  present  one. 

TEXTILES 

Plain  Weaving.  As  the  collection  of  Basket-maker  textiles 
described  in  our  first  report  contained  no  example  of  straight  over- 
and-under  weaving,  we  believed  that  the  Basket-makers  practised 
but  two  technics,  namely  twining  and  coiled-netting  (coil  without 
foundation).  Among  the  material  collected  in  1916-1917  there 
are,  however,  three  pieces  of  plain  over-and-under  weave.  The 
largest  of  these  is  the  cloth  outer  wrapping  of  the  infant  from  Cist 
13,  White  Dog  Cave.  Though  much  torn  and  showing  long  use, 
enough  remains  so  that  by  arranging  tattered  ends  of  selvage  in 
their  proper  positions  one  dimension  is  shown  to  be  27 §  inches.  The 
other,  based  on  extending  the  design  to  a  symmetrical  termination, 
would  be  26  inches.  It  is  probable  that  allowing  for  error  in  these 
measurements  the  original  piece  was  square.  The  general  appear- 

1  See  Kidder-Guernsey,  1919,  p.  108  and  plate  43.  The  specimens  figured  by  Pepper  (1902, 
p.  23)  are  probably  not  Basket-maker,  particularly  as  one  of  them  was  found  filled  with  beans; 
the  basket  shown  on  p.  25,  however,  seems  to  be  identical  with  the  one  under  discussion. 

2  Kidder-Guernsey,  1919,  p.  167. 


64 


BASKET-MAKER  CAVES 


ance  of  the  fabric  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  twined-woven  bags 
both  in  color  and  design,  the  difference  in  technic  not  being  ap¬ 
parent  at  first  sight.  The  weave  is  rather  coarse,  having  nine  warp 
and  fifteen  weft  strands  to  the  inch.  Both  warp  and  weft  are  of 
a  uniform  sized  two-strand  twist  of  rather  coarse  vegetal  fiber  pre¬ 
sumably  yucca.  As  far  as  it  is  possible  to  work  it  out  from  the  scant 
material  at  hand  the  weave  is  as  shown  in  the  diagrammatic  draw¬ 
ing,  figure  11,  b.  Details  as  to  the  manner  in  which  the  warp  edge 
is  finished  appear  in  figure  11,  b,  and  plate  25,  c.  The  warp  ends  are 
cut  close  and  the  weft  kept  from  unraveling  by  a  buttonhole  stitch. 
The  edge  running  parallel  to  the  warp  is  finished  by  twining  two 
fine  strands  of  human  hair  through  the  loops  that  result  from 
turning  back  the  weft  for  a  new  start;  this  also  is  illustrated  in 
figure  11,  b. 

In  the  photograph,  plate  4,  a,  there  is  seen  at  one  point  a  circular 
hole,  cut  in  the  fabric,  and  finished  all  around  by  overcasting  with 
fiber  thread.  The  design  (plate  20,  b)  consists  of  a  series  of  large 
rectangles  arranged  in  three  rows,  the  two  outside  rows  red,  the 
center  one  black.  The  units  average  2\  inches  long  by  inches 
wide.  Separately  dyed  elements  were  not  introduced  to  produce 
the  design;  but  apparently,  when  the  weaving  reached  a  point 
where  a  change  of  color  was  desired,  the  weft  strand  was  thoroughly 
rubbed  with  color  for  the  required  length  and  then  woven  in.  The 
warp  cords  show  little  color,  such  as  appears  on  them  probably  re¬ 
sulting  from  contact  with  the  weft.  It  is  possible  that  the  finished 
piece  may  have  been  treated  with  some  mordant  to  fix  the  dye. 

The  second  example  of  this  weave  is  a  fragment  12  inches  long 
by  2  inches  wide  in  very  bad  condition,  one  end  showing  darning. 
It  is  also  from  White  Dog  Cave.  There  are  traces  of  a  broad 
design  in  red,  the  exact  character  of  which  cannot  be  determined. 
The  piece  appears  to  be  a  part  of  a  blanket  very  similar  to  the  one 
just  described.  There  remains  a  short  section  of  one  edge  finished 
with  a  thread  of  human  hair  twined  through  the  weft  loops. 

The  third  piece,  from  Cave  11,  Sagiotsosi,  was  found  with  the 
disturbed  burial  described  on  page  37.  It  is  very  even]}'  woven 
with  fourteen  warp  and  twenty-one  weft  strands  to  the  inch.  The 
fragment  has  a  length  one  way  of  12  inches,  and  is  a  part  of  one 
corner  of  the  original  piece,  so  that  two  edges  remain.  Both  warp 
and  weft  edges  are  finished  in  the  same  manner  as  the  one  first  de- 


Peabody  Museum  Papers 


Vol.  VIII,  No.  2,  Plate  24 


Baskets:  All  from  White  Dog  Cave  with  the  exception  of  d,  which  is  from  Cave  2, 
Kinboko  Canyon,  Marsh  Pass.  (About  1/16.) 


OF  NORTHEASTERN  ARIZONA 


65 


scribed:  a  buttonhole  stitch  of  fine  string,  and  human  hair  twining 
thread  respectively.  The  design  is  in  red  and  black,  and  so  far  as 
it  can  be  traced  is  shown  in  plate  26,  c.  It  is  painted,  not  woven, 
and  the  color  was  applied  only  to  one  side  of  the  cloth;  the  red 
pigment  has  soaked  through  the  fabric  and  the  red  parts  of  the 
design  appear  faintly  on  the  back.  The  black  paint  has  not  soaked 
through  at  all.  To  the  corner  is  tied  a  dressed  leather  thong,  which 
leads  us  to  think  that  it  may  have  been  part  of  a  garment. 

These  fabrics  remind  one  strongly  of  the  Coahuila  cave  textiles, 
many  of  which  are  large  poncho-like  blankets  woven  in  the  same 


a,  Detail  of  weave,  fur  cloth  blankets;  b,  Plain  woven  cloth,  detail  of  weave  and  selvage. 

way  as  these,  and  also  have  one  edge  finished  with  the  buttonhole 
stitch.  The  latter  resemblance  seems  significant,  since  we  have 
not  been  able  to  find  in  the  Museum  collection  textiles  from  any 
other  region  so  finished.  The  designs,  it  is  true,  are  different, 
though  some  of  the  elements  seen  in  the  Basket-maker  twined- 
woven  bags  are  also  found  in  the  Coahuila  blankets. 

The  zigzag  lines  seen  in  the  second  specimen  (plate  26,  c)  are 
very  similar  to  the  zigzags  painted  on  the  breasts  of  certain  square¬ 
shouldered  Basket-maker  pictographs  from  the  Monuments.1 
This  resemblance  has  suggested  to  us  that  these  woven  fabrics 
may  have  been  used  as  shirts. 

Twined  Weaving.  The  bags  illustrated  on  plates  26,  28,  and  30 
form  one  of  the  most  interesting  groups  in  the  collection,  not  only 


1  Kidder-Guernsey,  1919,  p.  197,  figures  100,  101. 


66 


BASKET-MAKER  CAVES 


because  of  the  excellence  of  their  manufacture  and  the  variety  and 
beauty  of  their  decoration,  but  also  because  they  are  so  peculiarly 
characteristic  of  the  Basket-maker  culture.  We  have,  fortunately, 
a  large  amount  of  material:  complete  bags  to  illustrate  size,  shape, 
and  design ;  and  great  numbers  of  rags  and  fragments  to  make  clear 
the  details  of  technic. 

The  bags  are  flexible  seamless  sacks  with  full,  round  bodies  and 
long,  gradually  constricted  necks  (plate  26,  a,  d).  They  range  from 
\\  inches  to  2  feet  or  more  in  length.  All  are  made  in  the  same 
way,  of  close  twined  weaving;  the  majority  of  specimens  have 
both  warp  and  weft  of  two-ply  apocynum  string,  though  some 
have  yucca  warp  and  apocynum  weft.  The  combination  of  apocy¬ 
num  warp  and  yucca  weft  is  rare. 

Our  study  of  the  weave  was  begun  by  examining  the  bottoms  of 
the  bags  in  order  to  make  out  how  the  preliminary  “  set-up  ”  of 
the  warp  cords  was  accomplished.  By  dissecting  several  frag¬ 
mentary  specimens  we  found  that  there  were  two  methods,  one 
common,  the  other  rare.  The  former  was  as  follows:  six  long 
strands  were  laid  across  each  other,  three  above  and  three  below 
(figure,  12,  a);  the  middle  strand  of  each  set  of  three  runs  out 
straight,  the  others  are  bent  so  that  their  ends  radiate  from  the 
common  center.  There  are  thus  produced  twelve  original  warps. 
The  second  method  consists  of  twisting  three  strands  about  each 
other  and  then  bending  their  ends  so  that  they  radiate  and  form 
six  warp  cords  (figure  12,  b). 

The  above  systems  are  very  simple  and  practical,  and  avoid  the 
ugly  lump  and  the  potential  weakness  in  the  fabric  which  would 
have  been  the  result  of  knotting  the  warps  together  at  the  base. 
The  method  of  inserting  the  weft  also  obviates  knotting:  a  single 
long  string  is  worked  over  and  under  the  radiating  warp  cords  close 
about  their  common  center;  this  is  shown  slack  in  figure  12,  a,  b; 
in  reality  it  is  pulled  up  very  tight  and  holds  the  warp  firmly  to¬ 
gether.  When  a  circuit  of  the  spoke-like  warps  has  been  made, 
the  two  ends  of  the  weft  string  of  course  come  together;  they  are 
then  combined  into  a  single  strand  of  twined  weaving,  which  con¬ 
tinues  spirally  around  and  around  to  form  the  body  of  the  bag 
fabric. 

To  return  to  the  warp-skeleton.  Many  large  bags  have  as  many 
as  three  hundred  and  fifty  warps  at  their  point  of  greatest  diameter. 


Peabody  Museum  Papers 


Vol.  VIII,  No.  2,  Plate  25 


a,  Pottery,  Cave  6;  b,  Twined-woven  fabric,  White  Dog  Cave;  c,  Plain  woven  fabric,  Sagiotsosi 
Canyon;  d,  Coiled  netted  fabric,  White  Dog  Cave;  e-h,  Necklaces,  White  Dog  Cave. 


OF  NORTHEASTERN  ARIZONA 


67 


It  is  obvious  that  these  could  not  all  come  together  at  the  bottom 
of  the  bag;  hence  the  base  begins  with  six  or  twelve  warps  only 
(as  described  above)  and  sets  of  new  cords  are  introduced  as  the 
original  ones  radiate  away  from  each  other.  Upon  the  number  of 
new  warps  depends  the  size  of  the  finished  bag;  and  upon  the 
rapidity  of  their  insertion  depends  the  degree  of  flare  imparted  to 
the  base.  If  many  new  warps  are  added  close  to  the  bottom,  the 
latter  will  naturally  be  very  flat;  if  they  are  put  in  more  gradually 
the  bag  will  have  an  egg-shaped  base.  Figures  13,  a,  b,  illustrate 


Methods  of  arranging  and  binding  warp  cords  when  beginning  the  construction  of 
twined-woven  bags.  The  weft  cords  are  shown  in  solid  black. 


this;  each  one  represents,  diagrammatically,  a  circle  about  1} 
inches  in  diameter  at  the  bottom  of  a  bag.  In  figure  13,  a,  the 
original  twelve  warp  cords  are  multiplied  to  forty-eight  by  two 
series  of  insertions,  the  first  or  inner  series  consisting  of  twelve 
new  cords,  the  second  of  twenty-four.  In  figure  13,  b,  the  same 
total  is  arrived  at,  but  there  are  three  series  of  insertions;  the 
first  of  six,  the  next  of  twelve  and  an  outer  one  of  twenty-four. 
Figure  13,  c,  shows  an  area  of  bottom  no  greater  than  in  the  former 
specimens,  but  containing  seventy-six  warps,  set  in  as  follows: 
original  series  twelve,  first  insertion  series  twelve,  second  series 
fourteen,  third  thirty-eight.  The  weft  in  all  three  cases  is  woven 
in  with  approximately  the  same  degree  of  tightness;  hence  the 
warps  of  a  and  b  are  pulled  close  to  each  other  and  the  bags  have 


68 


BASKET-MAKER  CAVES 


narrower  bottoms  than  in  c,  where  the  quicker  insertion  of  warps 
allows  the  base  to  grow  rapidly  broader. 

We  have  not  yet  mentioned  the  actual  method  of  inserting  new 
warps.  Two  ways  were  employed.  In  one  (plate  27,  b)  the  string 
to  be  added  was  looped  and  laid  between  two  of  the  old  warps 
(b,  b')  thus  forming  two  new  ones  (a,  a');  the  first  two  or  three 
turns  of  the  weft  (c.  o')  attach  the  new  strands  to  the  old  warps  on 
either  side  of  them  holding  all  firmly  in  place;  the  next  turn  of 
weft  (d)  takes  in  each  new  element  separately  and  the  weaving 
continues  normally. 

In  the  second  method  (plate  27,  a),  the  strand  to  be  added  was 
doubled  into  a  loop,  making,  as  before,  two  new  warps;  the  string 


Methods  of  inserting  new  warp  cords  to  increase  diameter  of  bottom  of  bags. 


at  the  bend  of  the  loop  was  twisted  apart  into  its  two  component 
plies  and  one  of  the  old  warps  (bi  was  threaded  through  the  re¬ 
sultant  opening;  the  loop  (a.  a')  was  then  slid  up  the  old  warp  and 
brought  close  against  the  last  woven  turn  of  the  weft  (c),  thus 
producing  a  pair  of  new  warps  (a,  a')  one  on  each  side  of  the  original 
one  <b) ;  on  its  next  revolution  about  the  bag  the  weft  (d)  takes  in 
the  two  new  warps  and  holds  them  solidly. 

By  the  two  methods  just  detailed  the  new  warps  become  integral 
parts  of  the  fabric  without  leaving  any  loose  ends  and  without 
necessitating  any  disfiguring  knots.  The  tension  on  the  warps, 
however,  incident  to  the  use  of  the  bags,  tends  to  pull  the  loops 
very  tight  and  so  away  from  the  last  weft  turn  woven  previously 
to  their  insertion,  thus  producing  the  little  open  space  in  the  web 
indicated  in  the  two  figures.  Where  many  new  warp-pairs  were 
introduced  (as  in  the  outer  circle  of  figure  13,  c)  these  little  holes 


Peabody  Museum  Papers 


Vol.  VIII,  No.  2,  Plate  26 


Textile  designs:  a,  d,  Twined-woven  bags;  b,  c,  Plain  woven  cloth. 


OF  NORTHEASTERN  ARIZONA 


69 


naturally  lie  close  together  and  make  very  characteristic  open-work 
rings  about  the  bottoms  of  the  bags. 

The  two  different  ways  of  adding  warps  (figure  13,  a,  b)  are  about 
equally  common.  In  most  bags  either  one  or  the  other  is  adhered 
to;  occasionally  the  two  are  mixed  (figure  13,  c).  All  bags  seem 
to  start  with  either  six  or  twelve  original  warps,  the  ultimate  size 
of  the  fabric  depending  on  the  number  of  new  ones  introduced;  a 
medium-large  bag  (A-3054)  had  at  its  point  of  greatest  diameter 
a  total  of  about  three  hundred  and  fifty  warps.  Almost  all  speci¬ 
mens  are  more  or  less  constricted  toward  the  mouth;  this  is  accom¬ 
plished  partly  by  tightening  the  twining  of  the  weft  and  thus 
bringing  the  warp  closer  together,  and  partly  by  dropping  out 
warps.  A  warp  to  be  dropped  is  merely  cut  off  and  its  end  hidden 
by  the  next  turn  of  the  weft. 

The  final  point  in  the  study  of  the  warps  is  the  method  of  secur¬ 
ing  them  at  the  edge  or  mouth  of  the  bag  to  insure  a  strong  and 
ravel-proof  selvage.  This  was  sometimes  accomplished  by  turning 
the  warp  ends  about  a  stout  edge-string  (figure  14,  a)  and  running 
them  back  a  little  way  on  themselves;  they  were  held  in  this 
position  by  the  last  few  turns  of  the  weft;  their  loops  about  the 
edge  cord  were  then  pulled  tight  and  the  ends  of  the  cords  clipped 
off  close  to  the  fabric.  In  other  cases  the  warp  ends  were  looped 
under  each  other,  then  gathered  into  bundles  of  four  or  five, 
tucked  with  an  awl  through  the  fabric  just  below  the  edge  and 
finally  clipped  (figure  14,  b).  A  third  method  also  dispensed  with 
the  edge-cord:  each  warp  was  bent  at  the  edge,  paired  with  the 
warp  next  it,  run  back  along  it  towards  the  bottom  of  the  bag,  held 
by  the  upper  weft-turns,  pulled  snug,  and  clipped  (figure  14,  c).1 

We  now  take  up  the  twining  of  the  weft,  which  is  perfectly 
simple  and  regular.  It  begins  at  the  very  bottom  (figure  12,  a,  b) 
and  continues  in  a  close  spiral  to  the  mouth.  Fresh  lengths  of  weft 
string  were  not  tied  to  the  ends  of  the  old  ones  (these  weavers 
seem  to  have  had  a  deep-seated  aversion  to  knots),  but  were  run 
a  little  way  with  them  until  firmly  set.  The  entire  weft,  while 
made,  of  course,  of  many  pieces,  is  thus  essentially  continuous. 
The  method  of  procedure  is  unknown;  it  is  probable,  however,  that 
the  work  was  downward,  the  base  of  the  bag  having  been  attached 

1  Compare  with  a  similar  method  of  fastening  warp  ends  in  Cliff-dweller  sandal  heels  (Kidder- 
Guernsey,  1919,  p.  104  and  figure  38). 


70 


BASKET-MAKER  CAVES 


to  a  limb  or  pole  and  the  warps  allowed  to  hang  either  free  or  tied 
in  loose  bunches  to  prevent  tangling.1  The  twelve-year  old 
daughter  of  one  of  the  authors  has  experimented  with  this  tech¬ 
nic  and  has  quickly  become  expert  in  making  the  bags.  She 
holds  the  two  weft-strings  loosely  across  the  palm  of  her  hand 
separated  by  the  index  finger  and  gives  the  twist  necessary  to  cross 
them  between  warps  by  merely  turning  the  hand  over.  Each  suc¬ 
cessive  warp  is  hooked  up  and  drawn  between  the  wefts  with  the 
index  finger.  No  tool  is  necessary  for  beating  up  the  weft,  as  it 


b 

Figure  14 


Various  methods  of  finishing  the  top  of  twined-woven  bags. 


can  be  made  to  sit  tightly  by  a  slight  pull  after  every  few  warp 
crossings. 

The  weave  of  the  ancient  specimens  is  very  even,  and  the  number 
of  wefts  per  inch  over  the  whole  surface  of  any  given  bag  is  always 
practically  the  same,  though  the  warps  at  the  necks  of  constricted 
examples  are  pulled  somewhat  closer  together  than  they  are  at  the 
swell  of  the  bodies.  The  coarsest  weave  in  the  collection  (A-3005) 
has  five  warps  and  fourteen  weft-pairs  per  square  inch;  the  finest 
(A-3161)  has  fourteen  warps  and  twenty-three  weft-pairs.  The 
normal  texture  lies  approximately  half  way  between  these  two 
extremes  with  about  nine  warps  and  seventeen  or  eighteen  weft- 
pairs. 

The  decoration  of  the  bags  is  no  less  interesting  than  their 
structure.  There  are  two  styles,  woven  and  painted,  both  some¬ 
times  appearing  on  the  same  piece. 

The  woven  ornaments  were  accomplished  by  what  may  be 
termed  the  “  dyed  weft  ”  process.  When  a  band  of  color  was  to 
be  introduced  a  new  weft-pair  of  the  desired  shade  was  not  added, 

1  See  a  picture  of  a  Virginia  Indian  woman  weaving  a  bag-like  basket.  Mason,  1904,  figure 
148. 


Peabody  Museum  Papees 


Vox..  VIII,  No.  2,  Plate  27 


a-e,  Details  of  twined- woven  bags;  f,  Detail  of  plain  woven  carrying-strap. 


OF  NORTHEASTERN  ARIZONA 


71 


but  the  weft  then  in  use  was  itself  stained  or  rubbed  with  dye  for 
the  requisite  length  and  then  woven  in.  While  there  is  no  reason 
why  very  short  lengths  of  weft  should  not  have  been  so  colored 
and  small  unit  figures  thus  produced,  we  have  found  no  instance 
of  the  practice  in  the  twined  bags,1  all  the  designs  being  in  the 
form  of  bands  completely  encircling  the  bodies  of  the  sacks.  These 
bands  are  infinitely  variable,  but  all  are  made  in  the  same  way 
and  are  very  easily  analyzed.  To  understand  them  one  must  keep 
in  mind  that  in  twined  weaving  a  double  weft  is  used,  the  two 
elements  of  which  twine  both  about  each  other  and  about  the 
warps.  Each  of  the  two  elements  crosses  every  other  warp,  hence 
all  the  warps  are  crossed  (plate  27,  c,  a);  and  when  the  weft  is 
pulled  tight  the  warp  is  entirely  hidden,  each  weft  element  (in  the 
pair)  appearing  on  the  surface  of  the  fabric  over  every  other  warp. 
If  the  two  elements  are  of  the  same  color  the  resultant  line  of 
weaving  will  be  monochrome;  if  of  different  colors,  the  line  will  be 
“  beaded,”  half  of  one  color,  half  of  the  other  (plate  27,  c,  d). 

The  bodies  of  the  bags  are  woven  of  undyed  apocynum,  a  warm 
yellowish-brown.  The  band  designs  are  commonly  in  red,  black, 
or  a  mixture  of  the  two  (plate  28). 2  The  simplest  are  the  single 
lines  in  solid  black  or  solid  red  that  encircle  the  bases  of  most 
specimens  as  shown  in  this  plate.  By  introducing  wefts  with  one 
black  and  one  natural  element,  or  one  red  and  one  natural,  beaded 
lines  are  produced  and  these  are  combined  to  make  up  the  great 
variety  of  bands  shown  in  the  illustrations.  They  are  all  narrow 
(the  widest  in  the  collection  contains  but  twenty-four  lines)  and 
no  two,  except  the  simplest  types  (such  as  plate  29,  c),  are  ever 
exactly  alike.  A  favorite  practice  was  to  make  a  band  con¬ 
taining  both  red  and  black  as  in  b,  of  this  plate,  and  then  weave 
just  above  it  the  same  band  with  the  colors  reversed.  A  little 
study  of  the  detailed  drawings  in  the  plate  will  show  better  than 
any  amount  of  description  the  nature  of  the  patterns  and  the  ways 
in  which,  by  combining  “  beaded  ”  and  solid  lines,  the  different 
vertical,  horizontal  and  oblique  effects  were  produced. 

1  Except  as  "markers”  in  painted  designs  (plate  27,  e).  See,  however,  the  woven  fabric 
(plate  26,  b),  where  squares  are  made  in  this  way. 

2  There  is  one  specimen  (A-3056)  with  a  band  in  brown;  this  dye  caused  the  string  to  which 
it  was  applied  to  rot  rather  badly.  Another  bag  (A-3005)  has  two  lines  each  one  made  of  one 
red  and  one  dark  blue  strand.  The  third  ease  of  the  use  of  colors  other  than  the  conventional 
red  and  black,  is  the  appearance  of  a  few  yellow  lines  in  A-3470. 


72 


BASKET-MAKER  CAVES 


The  type  of  pattern  illustrated  in  e,  is  the  only  one  which  needs 
explanation.  Normally  the  weave  of  the  bags  is  counter-clockwise, 
and  a  series  of  “  beaded  ”  weft-rows  produces  an  oblique  design, 
whose  lines  run  downward  to  the  right  as  in  a.  By  shifting  the 
weave  to  a  clockwise  direction,  the  slant  of  the  oblique  lines  is 
changed  and  they  run  downward  to  the  left.  The  decoration 
shown  in  e,  therefore,  was  made  by  introducing  three  clockwise 
rows,  then  six  counter-clockwise,  and  finally  six  clockwise.  There 
are  but  two  examples  of  this  style  in  the  collection. 

One  further  point  should  be  noticed:  the  weft  is  continuous, 
going  around  and  around  the  bag;  if  the  number  of  warps  were 
even,  and  if  (for  example)  a  weft-pair  of  one  black  and  one  natural 
strand  were  being  used,  the  black  strands  would,  at  each  successive 
revolution  about  the  bag,  cross  the  same  warp,  and  a  series  of 
vertical  black  bars  would  be  produced  (as  in  the  two  upper  rows  of 
f).  If  on  the  other  hand,  the  number  of  warps  were  odd,  the 
emergences  of  the  black  strand  on  the  surface  would  be  offset  at 
each  revolution  and  the  resultant  design  would  be  oblique  as  in  a. 
As  both  types,  vertical  and  oblique,  often  occur  in  the  same  band, 
as  shown  in  d,  it  is  obvious  that  when  the  change  from  oblique  to 
vertical  or  vice  versa  was  to  be  made  the  weaver  had  to  employ 
some  device  to  reverse  the  order  of  emergences  of  her  alternating 
colors.  How  this  was  done  is  shown  in  plate  27,  d. 

Painting,  the  second  style  of  bag  decoration,  would  call  for 
little  notice  beyond  the  illustration  of  the  designs  themselves,  were 
it  not  for  two  very  interesting  peculiarities,  namely,  the  practice  of 
applying  the  designs  to  the  inside  as  well  as  to  the  outside  of  the 
bags,  and  the  use  of  markers  woven  in,  apparently  to  aid  in  this 
duplication.  These  methods  were  employed  in  the  decoration  of 
the  bag  shown  in  plate  30,  f,  and  restored  in  color  in  plate  28. 

Perhaps  the  clearest  way  of  presenting  the  technic  is  to 
describe  the  steps  by  which  we  arrived  at  an  understanding  of  it. 
We  had  examined  the  bags  a  number  of  times  and  had  always  sup¬ 
posed,  because  the  designs  appeared  on  both  sides  of  the  fabric, 
that  they  had  been  woven  in  probably  by  means  of  the  dyed-weft 
method;  closer  scrutiny,  however,  showed  that  the  vertical  and 
oblique  edges  of  the  figures  were  perfectly  even  and  straight,  not 
finely  serrated  or  stepped  as  is  always  the  case  with  such  edges  in 
a  woven  design.  Under  a  magnifying  glass  the  edges  of  the  colored 


Peabody  Museum  Papers 


Vol.  VIII,  No.  2,  Plate  28 


White  Dog  Cave 
Color-scheme  of  woven  bag'. 


OF  NORTHEASTERN  ARIZONA 


73 


areas  proved  to  be  formed  not  by  the  stitches  of  the  weave,  but  to 
run  quite  independently  of  them  as  illustrated  in  plate  27,  e.  This 
showed,  of  course,  that  the  designs  had  been  painted  on,  not  woven 
in;  but  we  were  still  at  a  loss  to  account  for  the  accuracy  with 
which  they  were  reproduced  on  the  reverse  of  the  fabric  (we  had 
pushed  pins  through  the  weave  at  various  juts  and  corners  of  the 
figures  and  had  found  that  their  points  protruded  at  exactly  corre¬ 
sponding  places  in  the  designs  on  the  other  side) .  We  then  decided 
that  some  dye  must  have  been  used  which  struck  clear  through  the 
material  and  colored  both  surfaces.  This  explanation  satisfied  us 
until  we  chanced  to  pry  apart  some  of  the  weft  strings,  and  noticed 
that  their  under  parts  and  the  warps  were  not  colored.  This 
puzzled  us  greatly  because  we  could  not  conceive  of  a  dye  which 
would  act  on  both  surfaces  of  a  cloth  without  affecting  its  body. 
We  then  returned  to  our  pin  tests,  and  eventually  discovered  a  few 
places  where  the  designs  on  front  and  back  failed  to  correspond  by 
a  small  fraction  of  an  inch,  and  one  spot  where  there  was  an  error 
of  a  quarter  of  an  inch. 

It  was  then  clear  that  the  two  sides  had  been  painted  separately, 
but  we  could  not  understand  how  the  elaborate  patterns  had  been 
duplicated  so  exactly.  Further  examination  cleared  up  this  ques¬ 
tion  also.  We  noticed  that  the  top  line  of  weaving  in  many  of  the 
colored  units  was  of  a  darker  shade  than  its  body;  on  picking  one 
of  these  upper  lines  out,  we  found  that  for  the  space  necessary  to 
cross  the  top  of  the  design-unit,  both  its  strands  had  been  tinted 
before  weaving  in  (weft-dyeing).  These  little  colored  lines  or 
markers  appeared,  of  course,  on  both  sides  of  the  fabric  and  must 
have  made  it  quite  easy  for  the  weaver  to  paint  identical  patterns 
on  each.  They  must  also  have  been  of  great  assistance  in  the 
original  laying-out  of  the  designs,  for  by  introducing  markers  at 
regular  intervals  (ascertained  by  counting  warps)  along  any  single 
line  of  weft,  regularity  of  spacing  in  a  horizontal  sense  could  be 
accomplished;  by  counting  weft  lines  as  they  were  woven  upward 
from  the  one  last  marked  and  then  marking  a  new  weft,  sym¬ 
metrical  vertical  spacing  could  be  insured  (see  plate  27,  e;  the 
shade  of  the  markers  is  there  exaggerated) . 

One  further  point :  we  experimented  with  water-color  paints  on 
bits  of  the  bag  fabric  and  found  that  it  takes  them  without  any 
blotting  or  running;  furthermore  the  moisture  in  the  paint  (carry- 


74 


BASKET-MAKER  CAVES 


ing  very  little  of  the  color  itself)  quickly  soaks  through  and  shows 
on  the  reverse  side  in  sharply  defined  wet  areas  of  exactly  the  same 
shape  as  the  painted  figures.  By  painting  over  these  moist  areas 
the  decorator  was  still  further  aided  in  the  accuracy  of  the  dupli¬ 
cation  of  the  design. 

This  painstaking  reproduction  was  accomplished  on  nearly  all 
the  painted  bags  in  the  collection;  there  are  but  few  specimens 
decorated  on  one  side  only.  Its  purpose  is  not  obvious,  for  while 
the  bags  are  reversible,  the  weave  being  the  same  within  and  with¬ 
out,  specimens  showing  long  use  are  much  more  worn  on  one  side 
than  on  the  other.  It  seems,  therefore,  that  the  patterns  on  the 
inside  were  normally  invisible.  That  they  were  so  meticulously 
carried  out  may  be  due  to  the  strong  craving  for  perfection  and 
love  for  detail  possessed  by  so  many  primitive  craftsmen;  or  it 
may  have  resulted  from  an  equally  common  psychological  trait, 
namely  that  of  wishing  to  carry  over  into  a  new  technic  the  quali¬ 
ties  of  an  older  one.  To  be  explicit:  it  is  likely’  that  basket-mak¬ 
ing  was  practised  by  these  people  before  they  learned  to  weave  this 
specialized  type  of  bag;  the  painted  patterns  under  discussion  are 
also  found  woven  in  the  baskets  (compare  plate  24  with  plates  26 
and  28);  hence  it  may  be  that  when  painting  such  decorations,  it 
was  thought  proper  that  they  should  appear  on  both  sides  of  the 
fabric  as  in  baskets. 

Fur  cloth.  This  was  one  of  the  most  important  textile  products 
of  the  Basket-makers.  Robes  of  fur  cloth  were  presumably  the 
usual  overgarment  for  cold  weather,  were  doubtless  used  for  sleep¬ 
ing  blankets,  and  were  invariably  wrapped  about  the  dead  previ¬ 
ous  to  burial ;  young  babies  were  provided  with  specially  shaped 
fur  cloth  coverings  (plate  4,  b,  f). 

The  strings  that  compose  the  body  of  the  fabric  were  variously 
prepared.  The  commonest  method  was  to  wrap  a  yucca  cord  with 
narrow  strips  of  the  hide  of  small  animals  applied  raw  and  with  the 
fur  on;  deer  and  mountain-sheep  skins,  when  used,  were  generally 
dressed.  The  strips  were  applied  spirally,  the  end  of  one  piece 
holding  down  the  beginning  of  the  next.  The  tight  wrapping  of 
the  hide  caused  the  hair  to  stand  out  in  all  directions,  thus  giving 
the  finished  string  the  appearance  of  a  greatly  magnified  pipe- 
cleaner.  Another  way  of  making  the  string  was  to  catch  tufts  of 
long,  woolly  animal  hair  (dog  or  buffalo)  detached  from  the  hide, 


Peabody  Museum  Papers 


Vol.  VIII,  No.  2,  Plate  29 


Twined  weaving;  designs  produced  by  different  manipulations  of  the  weft-strands. 


OF  NORTHEASTERN  ARIZONA 


75 


through  the  twists  of  a  two-ply  cord;  the  same  was  also  done  with 
small  patches  of  skin  from  the  heavily  furred  bottoms  of  rabbits’ 
feet.  Strips  of  tough  skin  with  the  hair  on  were  sometimes  twisted 
upon  themselves  instead  of  being  wound  about  a  cord. 

The  weaving  process  was  very  simple;  the  prepared  string  was 
wound  about  some  sort  of  frame,  or  perhaps  around  a  pair  of  long 
pegs  driven  in  the  ground.  The  winding  was  done  in  such  a  way 
as  to  lay  each  succeeding  turn  of  the  string  parallel  to  and  close 
against  the  preceding  one.  When  the  desired  size  was  reached, 
the  strings  were  fastened  together  by  twined  rows  of  yucca  cord; 
finally,  the  frame  was  removed.  To  illustrate  the  nature  of  the 
selvages,  a  corner  of  one  of  these  fabrics  is  shown  in  figure  11,  a. 
The  upper  edge  is  composed  of  the  looped  turns  of  the  single  long 
fur-string  which  forms  the  body  of  the  cloth.  On  the  lateral 
selvage  may  be  seen  the  method  of  bringing  the  continuous  twin¬ 
ing  cords  down  the  edge  for  a  new  crossing. 

Due  to  the  wide  spacing  of  the  rows  of  twining  cord,  the  texture 
of  fur  cloth  is  very  loose.  The  component  string  is,  however,  so 
fluffy  and  hangs  so  evenly  between  the  twined  cross-rows,  that  the 
finished  blanket  has  a  very  smooth  surface;  it  is  also  softer  and 
more  flexible  than  the  best  dressed  hide.  Pleasing  blends  of  color 
were  produced  by  mixing  different  kinds  of  fur;  ornamental  edg¬ 
ings  and  tassels  were  sometimes  made  by  using  bits  of  string 
wrapped  with  strips  of  downy  bird  skin;  or  strings  between  the 
plies  of  which  were  held  pieces  of  rabbit  foot  fur,  colored  red. 

Narrow  Fabrics.  Carrying  bands  were  employed  for  the  trans¬ 
portation  of  heavy  loads.  We  have  found  them  attached  to  the 
large  pannier  baskets  (plate  23,  k,  1),  and  one  accompanied  the 
bulky  bundle  containing  a  hunting  net  discovered  in  White  Dog 
Cave.  It  is  probable  that  they  were  also  used  with  cradles.  They 
are  long  woven  straps  with  loops  at  either  end.  Although  individ¬ 
ual  specimens  differ  from  each  other  in  dimensions  and  in  the 
details  of  weave  and  ornamentation,  most  of  them  are  fundamen¬ 
tally  alike  in  that  they  are  made  of  a  long  cord  looped  into  a  flat 
skein  and  held  together  by  a  single  binder,  which  runs  over  and 
under,  back  and  forth  across  it.  The  binder  terminates  just  before 
reaching  the  ends,  thus  leaving  two  loops  for  the  attachment  of 
the  strap  to  the  burden  (see  the  diagrammatic  drawing,  plate  27, 
f ) .  Ornamental  patterns  are  sometimes  introduced  by  making  the 


76 


BASKET-MAKER  CAVES 


skein  of  strings  of  contrasting  colors,  or  by  using  a  binder  of  a  color 
different  from  the  rest  of  the  fabric. 

One  of  the  straps  found  with  a  pannier  basket  (plate  23,  k)  is 
made  of  a  single  heavy  yucca  fiber  string  looped  on  itself  twelve 
times  to  form  twenty-four  parallel  elements;  the  binder  is  also  of 
yucca.  The  length  of  the  specimen  is  22  inches,  width  1^  inches. 
The  second  pannier  strap  is  longer,  32  inches,  but  of  the  same  width. 
It  is  composed  of  yellowish  fiber  and  black  human  hair  strings, 
alternated  to  produce  a  simple  design;  the  binder  is  yucca.  There 
are  also  several  fragmentary  bands  of  the  same  weave,  in  one  of 
which  (A-3495)  the  one  remaining  loop  is  tightly  wound  with  fine 
string. 

The  band  found  with  the  rabbit  net  (plate  31,  c)  is  constructed 
on  the  same  basic  principle,  but  its  binder,  instead  of  being  cov¬ 
ered  by  the  longitudinal  strings,  forms  the  surface  of  the  fabric. 
In  making  this  strap,  a  single  stout  yucca  cord  was  looped  four 
times,  producing  eight  parallel  strings;  the  binder  is  woven  back 
and  forth  over  and  under  these;  it  is  a  heavy  cord  twisted  of  a 
mixture  of  dog  and  buffalo  hair,  and  is  so  fluffy  and  is  beaten  up 
so  tightly  that  the  underlying  yucca  strings  are  entirely  concealed 
except  at  the  ends,  where  they  protrude  to  form  short  loops  for  the 
attachment  of  tie-cords.  The  specimen  is  22  inches  long  and  22- 
inches  wide. 

Tape.  Very  narrow  Hat  fabrics  were  made  on  the  same  general 
principle  as  the  coarser  carrying-straps,  but  the  materials  are  finer 
and  the  weave  more  elaborate.  They  are  rare,  our  only  new  ex¬ 
ample  being  a  short  length  of  tape  A  of  an  inch  wide  which  was 
found  attached,  apparently  as  a  tie-string,  to  a  large  fur  cloth  robe 
enveloping  mummy  1,  Cist  24,  White  Dog  Cave.  It  has  parallel 
longitudinal  elements  and  a  single  binder;  the  parallel  strings  are 
twenty-eight  in  number,  arranged  in  fourteen  pairs  which  twine 
about  the  successive  crossings  of  the  binder  instead  of  merely  pass¬ 
ing  over  and  under  them  as  in  the  carrying-straps.  The  design, 
produced  by  mixing  brown  and  white  strands,  is  very  similar  to 
that  of  a  tape  found  in  Cave  1,  1915.  In  number  of  elements  and 
in  weave  the  two  specimens  are  identical.1 

Rigid  bands.  We  have  only  a  single  specimen  of  this  type,  but 
there  is  a  very  similar  one  from  Grand  Gulch  in  the  American 


1  Kidder-Guernsey,  1919,  p.  173  and  figure  82. 


Peabody  Museum  Papers 


Vol.  VIII,  No.  2,  Plate  30 


Twined-woven  bags.  All  from  White  Dog  Cave  with  the  exception  of  d, 
which  is  from  Cave  6.  (About  J.) 


OF  NORTHEASTERN  ARIZONA 


77 


Museum  of  Natural  History  in  New  York.  Our  example  (White 
Dog  Cave,  A-3452)  is  composed  of  thirty  slim,  peeled  willow  twigs 
laid  side  by  side  to  form  a  flat  band  4|  inches  wide  and  held  to¬ 
gether  by  a  tight,  twilled  over-two-under-two  weave  of  fine  string. 
The  upper  part  of  the  cross-weaving  is  in  human  hair  string,  the 
lower  of  apocynum.  The  object  is  9|  inches  long,  but  is  broken 
off  at  both  ends  so  that  we  cannot  even  guess  at  its  original  length, 
nor  at  the  way  in  which  it  was  finished. 

NETTING  AND  CORDAGE 

Coiled  Netting.1  A  bag  from  White  Dog  Cave  is  our  best  ex¬ 
ample  of  this  technic.  It  is  a  little  apocynum  string  sack,  6 
inches  long,  with  rounded  body  and  constricted  neck.  The  stitch 
is  very  even  and  regular  (plate  25,  d) ;  there  are  twelve  coils  to 
the  inch  and  each  coil  has  nine  loops  to  the  inch.  The  entire 
bottom  of  the  bag  is  red ;  the  neck  is  in  natural  color,  encircled  by 
narrow  bands  of  red  and  brown.  As  there  is  no  sign  that  new 
strings  were  introduced  to  make  the  changes  in  color,  it  seems 
probable  that  the  entire  fabric  is  made  from  a  single  long  strand, 
which  was  stained  or  rubbed  with  pigment  for  the  proper  length 
whenever  it  was  desired  to  produce  a  colored  band. 

Rabbit  Net.  This  remarkable  specimen,  which,  according  to 
Dr.  J.  W.  Fewkes,  is  probably  the  largest  piece  of  ancient  textile 
so  far  recovered  in  North  America,  is  from  White  Dog  Cave.  When 
found  it  was  rolled  upon  itself,  partly  wrapped  in  bunches  of  fiber, 
and  tied  into  a  neat  bundle  with  yucca  leaves.  Undone  and  spread 
out,  it  proved  to  be  a  net  240  feet  long,  3  feet  8  inches  wide,  and 
with  meshes  2|  inches  square.  It  is  in  perfect  condition  and,  ex¬ 
cept  for  a  single  strand  which  has  at  some  time  been  burned 
through  by  a  stray  spark,  is  as  firm  and  strong  as  the  day  it  was 
made.  The  material  is  a  two-ply  twine  of  Indian  hemp  ( Apocynum 
cannabinum ) ,  very  firm  and  evenly  twisted  and  about  -3\  of  an  inch 
in  diameter.  An  estimate  of  the  amount  of  string  composing  the 
net  gives  approximately  19,581  feet,  or  very  nearly  3f  miles.  Ex¬ 
tending  the  length  of  the  long  edges  and  across  the  ends  is  a  mar¬ 
ginal  cord,  of  stouter  two-ply  yucca  string;  the  method  of  attach¬ 
ing  this  can  be  seen  in  plate  31.  The  mesh-knot  is  one  that  is 

1  This  term  has  been  suggested  by  Mr.  Willoughby  as  a  more  appropriate  one  than  Mason’s 
"coil  without  foundation”;  for  a  diagram  of  the  weave,  see  Kidder-Guernsey,  1919,  figure  45. 


78 


BASKET-MAKER  CAVES 


used  almost  universally.  The  entire  net  is  of  the  same  mesh,  but 
there  are  two  sections,  one  9  and  the  other  6  feet  long,  in  which 
human  hair  has  been  used  with  the  apocynum  fiber,  one  strand  of 
hair  twisted  with  one  of  fiber.1  These  sections  are  naturally  of  a 
darker  color  than  the  rest  of  the  specimen.  Strung  on  the  cord  of 
one  of  the  meshes  is  a  single  olivella  shell  bead,  another  bears  two 
stone  beads;  still  another  has  attached  to  it  a  few  downy  feathers 
which  may  be  seen  in  the  plate;  on  a  fourth  is  a  small  pink  feather, 
and  at  a  fifth  place  there  is  a  paw  of  some  small  animal  tied  on 
with  sinew. 

Attached  to  the  net  when  found  was  a  carrying-strap  of  coarse 
dog  or  buffalo  fur-string.  Such  a  strap  was  no  doubt  needed  for 
transporting  the  net,  as  the  whole  bundle  weighs  over  twenty-eight 
pounds.  The  bunches  of  fiber  that  partly  enclosed  the  rolled  up 
net  are  of  Indian  hemp  (the  same  material  in  its  raw  state  as  the 
twine) ;  it  is  stripped  up  and  tied  in  hanks  in  much  the  same  manner 
as  are  the  trade  bundles  of  Indian  hemp  in  the  Peabody  Museum 
collected  from  the  Thompson  Indians. 

The  method  of  using  nets  such  as  this  is  made  clear  by  the 
following  quotation  from  Powell: 2 

They  (the  Paiute)  get  many  rabbits  sometimes  with  arrows  sometimes  with 
nets.  They  make  a  net  of  twine,  made  of  the  fibers  of  a  native  flax.  Some¬ 
times  this  is  made  a  hundred  yards  in  length,  and  is  placed  in  a  half-circular 
position,  with  wings  of  sage  brush.  They  have  a  circle  hunt,  and  drive  great 
numbers  of  rabbits  into  the  snare,  where  they  are  shot  with  arrows. 

It  has  occurred  to  us  that  the  hair  string  sections,  being  darker 
than  the  rest,  might  have  been  intended  to  lure  the  quarry  toward 
them,  for,  to  a  frightened  animal  they  might  appear  to  be  openings. 

Of  interest  because  of  its  close  similarity  to  the  present  specimen 
is  a  rabbit  net  in  the  Peabody  Museum  that  was  collected  from  the 
Paiutes  about  1870  by  Dr.  Edward  Palmer.  Its  length  is  124  feet, 
width  4  feet.  The  mesh  is  practically  the  same,  and  the  material  is 
also  apocynum  fiber;  furthermore,  there  are  sections  which  appear 
darker  than  the  rest  of  the  body,  though  no  human  hair  string  is 
used.  This  net  is  provided  with  a  number  of  light  crotched  sticks 
which  w'ere  used  to  hold  it  upright  when  set.  No  such  sticks  wrere 

i  From  Cave  10  came  a  fragment  of  another  net  of  the  same  weave  and  mesh  size;  this 
piece  is  also  made  of  human  hair  and  apocynum  string. 

3  1S75,  p.  127. 


Peabody  Museum  Papers 


Vol.  VIII,  No.  2,  Plate  31 


White  Dog  Cave 

a,  Umbilical  pad;  b,  Gourd  vessel;  c,  Rabbit-net,  carrying-strap  and  bunch  of  fiber 
found  with  the  net.  (About  1/10.) 


OF  NORTHEASTERN  ARIZONA 


79 


found  with  the  specimen  from  White  Dog  Cave.  In  the  collection 
from  the  caves  of  Coahuila,  northern  Mexico,  is  a  fragment  of 
netting  similar  to  the  above.  Heye  records  a  fragment  of  yucca 
rabbit  net  from  a  Diegueno  cache  pot.1 

Snares.  The  best  preserved  of  the  three  specimens  of  snares 
found  in  Cave  6,  measures  8  feet  6  inches  in  length  and  is  made 
from  twelve  strands  of  twisted  yucca  fiber,  braided  into  a  rope 
re  of  an  inch  square.  At  one  end  is  a  loosely  tied  knot,  at  the 
other  a  loop,  2  inches  in  length.  This  loop  is  not  spliced  or  seized 
to  the  body  of  the  rope,  but  is  an  integral  part  of  it  (plate  32, 
a).  To  accomplish  this,  a  piece  7  inches  in  length  was  first  braided 
with  six  strands,  then  doubled  to  make  the  loop,  and  the  twelve 
strands  thus  brought  together  were  braided  to  form  the  rope  itself. 

A  second  specimen  made  of  the  same  material  and  in  the  same 
way  measures  7  feet,  4  inches  in  length. 

The  third  snare  though  made  in  the  same  way  as  the  other  two, 
is  of  a  different  material,  probably  apocynum  fiber.  The  strands 
are  more  evenly  twisted  and  the  braiding  so  done  as  to  give  the 
finished  rope  a  very  smooth  appearance.  It  is  also  more  flexible 
than  the  others,  and  shows  signs  of  considerable  use.  It  was 
broken  or  cut  into  three  sections  when  found.  Attached  to  the 
loop  of  the  noose  is  a  fragment  of  coarse  netting  made  of  soft  fiber 
string.  Fastened  to  the  netting  at  several  points  is  a  thread-like 
fiber  string. 

Tied  to  the  noose  of  each  of  the  first  two  specimens  described  is 
a  short  piece  of  twine,  and  a  bit  of  netting  made  of  similar  twine 
was  found  loose  in  the  cache.  Attached  to  one  end  of  this  netting 
are  four  beads  and  a  little  pendant  of  a  material  resembling  opal, 
very  brilliant  in  the  proper  light.  Of  the  beads,  the  one  next  to 
the  pendant  is  of  white  stone  and  measures  |  of  an  inch  in  diameter, 
and  of  an  inch  thick.  It  is  very  symmetrical.  Another  white 
bead  of  the  same  material  is  a  thin  disk.  The  third  and  fourth 
are  discoidal  in  shape  and  |  of  an  inch  in  diameter;  one  is  made 
of  a  green  stone,  the  other  of  shell,  Spondylus  calcifer. 

The  use  of  snares  of  this  kind  is  not  confined  to  any  one  region, 
but  appears  to  have  been  general  where  game,  such  as  deer,  ante¬ 
lope,  or  mountain-sheep,  was  found.  The  Porno  Indians  employ  a 
similar  contrivance,  the  noose,  when  set,  filled  with  coarse  netting. 

i  1919,  p.  45. 


80 


BASKET-MAKER  CAVES 


Lumholtz  describes  and  figures  a  snare  used  by  the  Huichol  Indians 
of  central  Mexico,  which  is  set  with  a  netting  across  the  noose 
opening.1  Waterman  illustrates  a  Yahi  deer  snare  of  the  same 
type  as  those  under  discussion,  but  without  the  netting.2  It  is 
probable  that  the  Cliff-dwellers  also  used  snares,  as  one  of  a  series 
of  pictographs  found  near  Ruin  5  by  the  1914  expedition  depicts 
a  man  in  the  act  of  throwing  a  noose  over  the  head  of  a  mountain- 
sheep.3 

The  netting  with  which  the  noose  was  filled  no  doubt  made  the 
trap  more  effective,  as  it  could  be  set  to  cover  a  much  wider  space 
in  the  runway.  The  animal  in  pushing  its  way  through  the  net 
would  draw  the  noose  tight  about  its  neck. 

The  method  of  braiding  a  rope  square  is  also  widespread  and  has 
survived  into  modern  times  as  in  Navajo  leather  riatos.  Examples 
are  found  principally  in  regions  where  the  lariat  is  used,  though  the 
Northwest  Coast  tribes  braid  ropes  in  this  way  for  their  harpoons 
and  other  fishing  devices,  as  do  the  Mohave  for  neck  strings. 

A  running  noose  probably  designed  for  a  snare  is  the  clever 
little  device  illustrated  in  plate  32, b.  The  braided  loop  is  replaced 
by  a  short  section  of  hollow  bone,  neatly  cut  and  seized  to  one  end 
of  the  string  with  sinew.  This  makes  a  very  free-running  noose. 

OBJECTS  OF  WOOD 

Atlatl  or  Spear-thrower.  The  atlatl  is  a  device  which  serves  to 
add  greater  length,  and  therefore,  greater  propulsive  force  to  the 
arm  of  the  thrower  in  launching  a  spear  or  dart.  It  consists  of  a 
long,  thin  stick  with  a  grip  for  the  hand  at  one  end,  and  a  hook¬ 
like  spur  to  engage  the  butt  of  the  spear  at  the  other.  In  throw¬ 
ing,  the  butt  of  the  spear  was  placed  against  the  spur  at  the  end  of 
the  atlatl;  its  shaft  lay  flat  along  the  atlatl  with  its  point  project¬ 
ing  in  front  of  the  user’s  hand;  it  was  held  in  this  position,  prob¬ 
ably  near  its  middle,  by  the  second  (fore)  and  third  fingers  which 
passed  through  the  loops  of  the  atlatl  on  the  sides  of  the  grip.  The 
fourth  and  fifth  fingers  were  clenched  upon  the  atlatl  grip  below 
the  loops,  holding  it  firmly  against  the  palm  and  heel  of  the  hand. 
The  base  of  the  thumb  served  to  solidify  this  grip  on  the  atlatl, 

1  Lumholtz,  1903,  Vol.  II.  p.  41. 

2  Waterman,  1918,  plate  13. 

3  Kidder-Guernsey,  1919,  plate  93,  b. 


Peabody  Museum  Papers 


Vol.  VIII,  No.  2,  Plate  32 


a,  b,  Snares  showing  details;  c,  d,  e,  Bunches  of  human  hair;  f,  g,  Skin  bags, 
b,  c,  d,  f,  g,  White  Dog  Cave;  a,  Cave  6;  e,  Cave  14.  (About  |.) 


/ 


OF  NORTHEASTERN  ARIZONA 


81 


and  the  thumb  proper  aided  to  steady  the  spear  in  its  resting 
place  between  and  upon  the  second  and  third  fingers.1 

The  atlatls  illustrated  in  the  plate  were  all  found  with  burials  in 
White  Dog  Cave.  The  finest  of  these,  plate  33,  b,  c,  had  been 
broken  nearly  in  two  before  it  was  placed  in  the  cist.  It  is  made  of 
oak,  carefully  worked  down  and  almost  polished.  The  length  over 
all  is  25  inches.  The  front  or  spur  side  is  nearly  flat,  except  for  the 
short  distance  between  the  spur  and  the  distal  end,  where  the 
middle  is  a  little  higher  than  the  rest  of  the  surface.  The  sides  are 
rounded  and  the  back  is  slightly  convex.  The  distal  end  termi¬ 
nates  in  a  blunt  point.  The  spur  is  set  at  the  head  of  a  short  deep 
groove,  the  bottom  and  sides  of  which  show  plainly  the  marks  of 
the  sharp  stone  tool  used  in  excavating  it.  At  3^  inches  from  the 
rounded  proximal  or  hand  end  the  two  sides  of  the  stick  have 
broad  notches;  these  notches  lie  between  the  finger-loops.  The 
latter  are  made  of  a  single  strip  of  heavy  dressed  hide  folded 
lengthwise.  Through  the  middle  of  this  folded  piece  there  is  cut 
a  longitudinal  slit  just  large  enough  to  allow  it  to  be  pushed  up 
over  the  atlatl  shaft  to  its  proper  position  at  the  lower  end  of  the 
side  grooves.  The  two  flaps  are  brought  forward  and  down  until 
they  touch  the  stick  at  the  upper  end  of  these  grooves,  where 
they  are  securely  fastened  with  strong  sinew  sewed  through  them, 
and  then  wrapped  around  the  shaft.  On  the  back  of  the  atlatl 
there  is  a  thong  which  is  looped  through  the  slit  in  the  grip,  brought 
forward  and  seized  to  the  shaft;  this  served  to  hold  the  strip  in 
place  and  to  keep  the  finger  loops  properly  extended. 

Tightly  lashed  to  the  back  of  the  atlatl,  as  shown  in  the  drawing, 
are  three  beautifully  worked  greenish  stones  of  elongated  loaf- 
shape,  flat  where  they  lie  against  the  wood,  their  upper  sides 
sharply  convex.  All  three  are  fashioned  from  a  substance  identi¬ 
fied  by  Professor  J.B.  Woodworth  as  a  fossilized  mammalian  tooth.2 
The  entire  shaft,  from  the  binding  which  holds  the  upper  stone  to 
the  finger-loop  attachments,  is  coated  with  a  thin  layer  of  resinous 
gum,  applied  before  the  stones  were  tied  on,  but  afterwards  re¬ 
newed  on  the  front  side,  where  it  covers  the  seizing  of  the  middle 
one. 

1  See  Kidder-Guemsey,  1919,  figure  87. 

2  An  unworked  fragment  of  the  same  material  was  found  in  a  bag  in  Cave  6;  see  plate 
44,  b. 


82 


BASKET-MAKER  CAVES 


The  second  atlatl  (plate  33,  f)  is  somewhat  less  well-preserved, 
its  oak  shaft  being  checked  and  a  little  shrunken,  and  the  finger- 
loops  dried  stiff.  The  lateral  curve  of  the  stick  is  probably  due  to 
warping.  The  total  length  is  23§  inches.  The  spur  is  slimmer  and 
sharper  than  that  of  the  specimen  just  described;  and  the  groove, 
instead  of  being  deep  and  short,  is  shallow  and  runs  nearly  5 
inches  down  the  shaft.  The  finger-loops  are  straddled  as  before, 
over  a  pair  of  broad  notches  in  the  side  of  the  stick ;  they  are  made 
by  folding  a  buckskin  strip,  slitting  it  in  the  middle,  and  drawing 
it  over  the  shaft,  to  which  the  ends  are  attached  by  a  cross-binding 
and  an  over-wrapping  of  sinew.  The  slit  middle  part  is  kept  from 
slipping  backward  by  an  annular  seizing.  Ten  inches  from  the 
butt  there  may  be  seen  on  the  front  (illustrated)  side  of  the  weapon 
the  print  of  a  former  ligature;  on  the  back  there  is  a  light  colored 
oval  mark  corresponding  exactly  in  size  and  shape  to  the  flat  base 
of  a  chipped  stone  (plate  35,  f)  found  loose  in  the  same  cist.  These 
traces  indicate,  of  course,  that  the  stone  was  once  attached  to  the 
back  of  the  weapon. 

The  next  atlatl  to  be  considered  is  a  fragmentary  one,  shown  in 
plate  33,  d.  The  part  recovered  is  a  section  of  the  shaft  7f  inches 
long  extending  forward  from  the  former  seat  of  the  finger-loops. 
To  the  back  is  attached  an  elaborate  series  of  “  weights.”  The 
specimen  was  found,  done  up  with  other  objects,  in  a  skin  container 
that  was  tucked  between  the  outer  coverings  and  the  fur  cloth 
robe  of  mummy  2,  Cist  24.  Both  ends  are  bruised  and  rounded, 
indicating  that  the  piece  was  used  in  some  way,  perhaps  as  a  cere¬ 
monial  object  or  as  a  fetish,  for  a  long  time  after  the  original 
weapon  was  broken. 

In  size  and  shape  the  fragment  differs  little  from  corresponding 
parts  of  the  atlatls  described  above.  The  side  grooves  under  the 
missing  finger-loops  ore  shallower;  and  there  are  a  pair  of  notches 
just  forward  of  these,  which  once  held  the  fastenings  of  the  front 
ends  of  the  loops.  Of  the  attached  “  weights,”  the  lowest  is  a 
small  triangular  chipped  point,  If  inches  long  and  f  of  an  inch  wide; 
its  lower  side  is  flat,  so  that  it  fits  snugly  against  the  stick,  the 
upper  side  is  somewhat  rounded.  The  sinew  wrappings  which 
hold  it  pass  about  the  shallow  finger  notches.  Two  and  three- 
quarters  inches  above  the  chipped  point  there  is  a  flat  oval  piece  of 
white  limestone,  If  inches  long,  §  inch  wide,  and  |  of  an  inch  thick; 


Peabody  Museum  Papers 


Vol.  VIII,  No.  2,  Plate  33 


White  Dog  Cave 
Atlatls  or  dart-throwers.  (About  $.) 


OF  NORTHEASTERN  ARIZONA 


83 


it  is  very  neatly  made  and  is  well  polished.  Almost  touching  this 
is  a  polished,  loaf-shaped  piece  of  dark  green  satin  spar,  2  inches 
long.  Pushed  under  the  sinew  binding  that  holds  the  latter  in 
place  is  a  section,  1  inch  long,  broken  from  a  round  skewer-like 
bone  object,  perhaps  from  a  pin  such  as  was  used  in  making  hair 
ornaments  (plate  18,  b).  A  dark,  pitchy  stain  covers  that  portion 
of  the  shaft  to  which  the  objects  just  described  are  attached,  and 
is  smeared  over  the  sinew  wrappings  of  the  two  forward  ones. 
Adhering  to  the  stick  when  found  were  some  downy  feathers,  but 
it  is  not  certain  that  they  had  not  become  stuck  to  it  accidentally. 

The  two  remaining  figures  of  the  plate  show  pieces  of  broken 
atlatls.  The  butt  fragment  has  two  narrow  notches  on  one  side 
below  the  finger-grooves,  a  feature  not  observed  in  any  other 
specimen.  Ligature  prints  of  the  finger-loop  attachments,  and 
also  of  a  “  weight  ”  binding  may  be  seen.  The  broken  distal  end 
is  the  heaviest  and  broadest  one  in  the  collection;  it  measures 
If  inches  across;  the  groove  is  2f  inches  long. 

Darts.  The  darts  cast  with  the  aid  of  the  atlatl  consisted  nor¬ 
mally  of  two  parts:  a  long  main-shaft,  feathered  at  the  proximal 
or  butt  end;  and  a  short  foreshaft  set  into  the  tip  or  distal  end 
of  the  main-shaft.  Heretofore  there  has  been  little  accurate 
knowledge  as  to  the  main-shafts,  the  material  recovered  having 
been  very  fragmentary.  The  expedition  of  1916,  however,  yielded 
three  nearly  perfect  specimens,  as  well  as  a  number  of  less  com¬ 
plete  ones,  from  which  additional  details  can  be  learned.  These 
were  all  found  with  burials,  and  had,  on  account  of  their  length, 
been  broken  before  being  placed  in  the  cists. 

The  three  entire  shafts  referred  to  above  were  in  halves  when 
discovered;  mended  they  measure  exclusive  of  foreshafts,  52|,  55, 
and  55 1  inches  long.  The  tips  or  distal  ends  are  the  heaviest  parts 
averaging  f  inch  in  thickness;  from  this  maximum  diameter  there 
is  a  gradual  taper  to  the  butts  or  proximal  ends,  which  average  f 
of  an  inch  through.  They  are  made  of  straight,  slender  branches  of 
some  light  wood  with  a  small  pithy  heart ;  the  bark  has  been  care¬ 
fully  removed,  the  twigs  trimmed  close,  and  in  some  cases  the 
knots  have  been  further  eliminated  by  rubbing.  The  large  ends 
of  some  shafts  have  a  very  slight  terminal  taper  (plate  34,  h) ,  and 
the  edges  of  the  butts  are  rounded.  One  specimen  has  marks  on 


84 


BASKET-MAKER  CAVES 


its  surface  such  as  might  have  been  caused  by  using  a  shaft  - 
straightener  of  the  wrench  type.1 

In  the  distal  or  large  end  of  the  shaft  is  drilled  a  cone-shaped 
hole  Ts  of  an  inch  in  diameter  at  the  mouth  and  1  inch  to  1  j  inches 
in  depth;  into  this  socket  was  fitted  the  butt  of  the  foreshaft  as  in  j. 
In  order  to  prevent  the  socket  from  being  split  open  when  the  fore¬ 
shaft  was  driven  back  into  it  on  impact,  it  is  reenforced  by  outer 
ferrule-like  wrappings  of  stout  flat  sinew  as  shown  in  the  drawing. 
The  proximal  or  butt  end  of  the  main-shaft  is  provided  with  a 
shallow  cup,  b,  to  engage  the  spur  of  the  throwing  stick,  and  here 
again  there  is  sometimes  applied  a  band  of  sinew  to  prevent 
splitting. 

The  method  of  winging  the  shafts  can  be  accurately  recon¬ 
structed  from  the  material  at  hand.  As  shown  in  a,  b,  three 
feathers  possibly  somewhat  trimmed,  but  with  unsplit  quills,  were 
laid  along  the  shaft  and  seized  to  it  at  both  ends  with  flat  sinew.2 
The  average  length  of  the  feathers  on  five  specimens  is  7^  inches; 
the  average  distance  from  the  end  of  the  feathering  to  the  butt  is 
4|  inches.  The  feathers  themselves  were  prepared  for  attachment 
as  follows:  the  end  of  the  quill  was  cut  off  and  into  its  hollow 
body  there  was  introduced  a  tight  fitting  plug,  1  inch  to  H  inches 
long,  either  of  wood  or  of  the  sharp,  hard  tip  of  a  yucca  leaf.  The 
end  of  the  quill  was  further  solidified  by  wrapping  it  about  with 
sinew.  Both  these  features  are  illustrated  in  b.3  Heavy  flat 
seizing  of  sinew  secures  the  thus  prepared  lower  end  of  the  feather 
to  the  shaft;  the  light  tip  end  has  no  extra  strengthening  and  is 
merely  bound  to  the  shaft  with  a  few  turns  of  thin  sinew.  The 
purpose  of  this  careful  plugging  and  binding  of  the  quill  was  un¬ 
doubtedly  to  render  it  so  firm  and  solid  that  it  could  be  tightly 
bound  to  the  shaft  at  exactly  the  correct  angle;  an  unplugged 
quill  would  have  been  crushed  by  the  ligatures,  and  the  feather 

1  Though  not  uncommon  in  cliff-dwellings,  we  have  found  no  such  implement  among  Basket- 
maker  remains.  The  Cliff-dweller  wrenches  are  made  of  mountain-sheep  horn,  are  9  to  10  inches 
long,  and  have  a  hole,  or  a  series  of  holes  of  different  sizes,  in  one  end;  through  these  the  shaft 
was  drawn  and  then  straightened  by  leverage  on  the  other  end  (see  Kidder-Guernsey,  1919, 
plate  46,  a,  e).  See  also  Hough,  1919,  plate  46,  figure  4. 

3  We  are  now  able  to  rectify  an  error  in  our  previous  report.  In  our  restoration  of  the  feather¬ 
ing  of  atlatl  darts  there  given  (figure  89)  we  were  misled  by  the  presence  of  some  extra  seizing 
bands  not  really  connected  with  the  feathering,  and  postulated  a  triple  attachment  like  that  on 
lower  Yukon  shafts.  This  is  incorrect. 

3  Although  we  have  not  seen  the  specimens,  we  think  it  likely  that  the  loose  ends  of  cords 
bound  under  the  seizing  of  the  feathers  on  darts  described  by  Pepper  (1905,  p.  121)  represent 
the  remains  of  feather-butt  reinforcements  similar  to  those  just  described. 


Peabody  Museum  Papers 


Vol.  VIII,  No.  2,  Plate  34 


White  Dog  Cave 


a,  b,  d,  Lower  portion  of  darts  showing  method  of  feathering;  o,  Point  of  dart;  e,  Upper 
portion  of  dart  showing  bunt-head;  h.  Upper  portion  of  shaft  showing  socket  for  foreshaft; 
f,  g,  i,  Foreshafts  with  chipped  stone  points;  j,  Foreshaft  in  position,  and  upper  portion  of 

shaft.  (About  J.) 


OF  NORTHEASTERN  ARIZONA 


85 


would  not  have  held  rigidly  to  its  intended  position.  The  arrange¬ 
ment  just  described  is,  as  far  as  we  know,  unique  in  shaft  feather¬ 
ing,  but  is  found  in  the  feather  hair  ornaments  of  the  Mohave 
(P.  M.  catalogue  number  10091). 

So  little  of  the  pile  of  the  feathers  has  resisted  decay  and  the 
ravages  of  insects  that  it  is  impossible  to  identify  the  species  of 
birds  from  which  they  were  obtained.  Plumes  of  corresponding 
length  and  weight,  tied  into  bundles  and  perhaps  intended  for  the 
winging  of  darts,  were  found  in  Cave  1,  Kinboko,  in  1915  (Kidder- 
Guernsey  1919,  plate  81 ;  a,  b) ;  these  belonged  to  Hutchin’s  (?) 
wild  goose  ( Branta  canadensis  hutchinsi )  and  the  western  red-tailed 
hawk  ( Buteo  borealis  calurus ) . 

A  non -functional  feature  of  the  main-shafts  remains  to  be  de¬ 
scribed,  namely,  decoration.  All  the  darts  are  painted  or  stained 
on  the  shaftment  under  the  feathering,  and  also  for  a  short  dis¬ 
tance  back  from  the  socket  end;  some,  we  judge  from  fragments, 
were  colored  their  entire  length.  The  most  elaborately  decorated 
shaftment  (plate  34,  a)  is  painted  black  with  a  spiral  line  of  red; 
a  second  (d)  was  painted  black  over  a  temporary  wrapping,  which 
when  removed  left  a  spiral  ornament  in  the  light  natural  color  of 
the  wood.  Another,  on  which  the  paint  shows  but  faintly,  seems 
to  bear  four  broad  longitudinal  lines  separated  from  each  other  by 
narrow  stripes  of  natural  surface.  Most  of  the  socket  ends  were 
painted  black  as  shown  in  h,  two,  however,  are  red;  and  one 
socket  end  25  inches  long  is  stained  black  for  15  inches,  thence  to 
the  break  it  is  light  red. 

In  the  collection  are  a  few  broken  main-shafts  that  have  been 
put  to  secondary  uses.  The  flint-flaker  shown  in  figure  15,  b,  c,  is 
mounted  on  such  a  fragment;  another  piece,  from  the  butt-end 
of  a  dart,  was  whittled  to  a  sharp  point  and  served  as  a  skewer-like 
pin  for  fastening  together  the  wrappings  of  a  mummy. 

Foreshafts,  complete  with  points,  are  represented  by  five  perfect 
specimens  from  White  Dog  Cave.  All  of  these  are  tapered  at  one 
end  to  fit  into  the  socket  of  the  spear  shaft,  and  are  notched  at 
the  other  to  provide  a  seat  for  the  stone  tip.  The  one  shown 
in  i,  plate  34,  formed  part  of  a  bundle  resting  in  the  lap  of  a 
mummy  in  Cist  31;  it  is  the  largest  in  the  collection.1  It  is  made 
from  a  peeled  stick  unworked  except  at  the  ends.  The  point  is  of  red 

1  See  table  of  measurements  at  end  of  description. 


86 


BASKET-MAKER  CAVES 


jasper  and  is  secured  to  the  stick  by  a  seizing  of  heavy  sinew.  The 
one  illustrated  in  f,  found  near  the  right  hand  of  mummy  2,  Cist 
27,  is  slightly  tapered  at  the  notched  end.  The  red  jasper  point 
is  firmly  wedged  in  the  notch;  the  sinew  bindings  were  in  place 
when  the  specimen  was  found,  but  crumbled  away  on  exposure  to 
the  air.  Specimens  g,  and  j,  lay  at  the  foot  of  mummy  1,  Cist  24. 
The  latter  is  flattened  on  either  side  at  the  notched  end;  its  head 
is  of  yellow  jasper  and  is  secured  to  the  shaft  by  a  neat  seizing 
of  fine  flat  sinew  applied  very  tightly.  The  body  of  the  shaft 
is  painted  with  a  thin  grey  wash;  at  the  notched  end  on  either 
side  are  daubs  of  thick  dark  red  paint  put  on  over  the  wrappings 
and  also  discoloring  the  base  of  the  chipped  point.  The  head  of 
g,  is  worked  from  a  thin  spall  of  dark  flint,  the  original  surface  of 
the  flake  showing  on  one  side.  It  is  fastened  to  the  shaft  with  flat 
sinew.  The  shaft  itself  is  colored  with  dark  red  paint  which  ends 
where  the  taper  begins,  showing  that  it  was  tinted  after  it  had  been 
inserted  in  the  main-shaft  of  the  dart. 


MEASUREMENTS  OF  FORESHAFTS  IN  INCHES 


A 

B 

C 

D 

Total  length  . 

.  6f 

°8 

6 

5f 

Length  of  shaft . 

.  -u 

41 

4f 

4f 

Diameter  of  shaft . 

I 

7 

16 

f 

t 

Length  of  head  . 

91 

if 

If 

If 

Width  of  head  at  base . 

.  i 

1 

4 

5 

8 

1 

4 

Comparing  these  with  the  dimensions  of  foreshafts  from  south¬ 
eastern  Utah  given  by  Pepper  (1905,  p.  127),  it  will  be  seen  that 
the  latter  average  considerably  larger. 

On  plate  34,  e,  is  shown  a  wooden  bunt  head  tightly  wedged  into 
the  socket  of  the  main-shaft,  beyond  the  end  of  which  it  protrudes 
for  14  inches.  The  rounded  end  is  f  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  It  is 
roughly  finished  and  is  much  like  a  specimen  figured  in  our  first 
report,  which  we  thought  might  possibly  be  a  bunt  head  for  an 
atlatl  dart.1 

Pepper,2  illustrates  several  foreshafts  with  bunt  heads  of  bone 
fitted  down  over  them.  Nothing  of  this  sort  is  in  the  collection, 
but  there  is  a  main-shaft,  c,  whose  distal  end,  instead  of  being  pro¬ 
vided  with  the  usual  socket,  is  brought  to  a  plain  tapering  point. 

J  1905,  plate  III. 


>  Kidder-Guernsey,  1919,  figure  92  and  p.  1S5. 


Peabody  Museum  Papers 


Vol.  VIII,  No.  2,  Plate  35 


a,  b,  Unfinished  foreshaft  points;  c,  Foreshaft  point;  d,  Chipped  knife  blade;  e,  Hafted 
pipe-drill;  f,  Chipped  atlatl  stone;  g,  Chipped  flint  graver;  h,  i,  Unfinished  flint  disc;  j, 
k,  Chipped  knife  blades;  1,  Flint  knife  (blade  broken),  a,  f,  h,  i,  j,  k,  1,  White  Dog  Cave; 
b,  c,  d,  g,  Burial  cave,  Sayodneechee  Canyon;  e,  Cave  6.  (About  §.) 


4 


OF  NORTHEASTERN  ARIZONA 


87 


It  is  possible  that  a  bone  head  was  slipped  on  over  this,  and  the 
foreshaft  dispensed  with. 

Dart  Points.1  All  the  chipped  atlatl  dart  heads  which  were 
found  attached  to  foreshafts  were  of  the  tanged  variety.  From  a 
skeleton  in  Sayodneechee  Cave  (1914),  however,  and  in  a  little 
skin  sack  from  Cist  6,  White  Dog  Cave,  were  recovered  a  number 
of  points  similar  in  size  and  shape  to  the  tanged  specimens  but 
with  unnotched  bases  (plate  35,  a,  b).  We  believe  these  are  dart 
heads  completed  up  to  the  final  step  of  flaking  out  the  deep  notches 
on  the  lower  sides,  a  step  deferred  until  just  before  mounting  them 
in  the  foreshafts,  because  of  the  danger  in  an  unmounted  condition 
of  breakage  of  the  long  and  delicate  flanges.  Almost  all  our 
finished  points  are  notched  at  right  angles  to  their  long  axes,  the 
notches  having  a  depth  equal  to  about  one-third  of  the  total  width 
of  the  base.  The  notches  of  the  large  chipped  knives,  on  the  other 
hand,  instead  of  being  set  at  right  angles  to  the  long  axes  of  the 
specimens,  run  in  at  an  acute  angle  (compare  the  specimens  illus¬ 
trated  in  the  two  plates,  34  and  35). 

Atlatl  Stones.  On  plate  35,  f,  is  illustrated  a  chipped  object 
thought  to  have  been  originally  fastened  to  the  back  of  the  atlatl 
shown  in  f,  plate  33,  which  was  found  in  the  same  cist  with  it 
(Cist  24,  White  Dog  Cave).  The  material  is  translucent  quartz; 
in  shape  it  resembles  a  diminutive  “  turtle-back  ”  with  one  flat 
surface.  On  the  upper,  or  convex,  side  are  faint  marks  that  appear 
to  have  been  made  by  wrappings. 

Four  small  loaf-shaped  stones  were  taken  from  the  bottom  of 
Cist  27.  Though  somewhat  smaller  than  those  fastened  to  atlatls 
b  and  d,  plate  33,  they  are  of  about  the  same  shape  and  were  with¬ 
out  much  doubt  atlatl  stones.  Each  of  them  has  one  side  flattened 
to  fit  snugly  against  the  atlatl  shaft.  Three  are  made  of  a  green 
stone  somewhat  the  color  of,  but  less  hard  than,  jade;  the  surface 
of  one  is  polished,  the  other  two  are  roughened  as  if  by  some  chemi¬ 
cal  action,  but  retain  traces  of  an  original  polish.  The  fourth  stone 
(plate  17,  f,  g)  has  rather  more  pointed  ends  and  differs  further 
from  the  others  in  having  a  deep  concavity  cut  in  the  under 
side;  it  is  made  from  an  unidentified  fossil  and  the  surface  is  un¬ 
polished. 

1  These  and  the  following  specimens  (atlatl  stones)  are  treated  here,  rather  than  under  their 
proper  place  among  the  stone  objects,  because  they  are  really  integral  parts  of  the  atlatl. 


88 


BASKET-MAKER  CAVES 


Another  specimen  is  perhaps  an  unfinished  atlatl  stone;  parts  of 
its  surface  show  chipping,  others  grinding.  The  material  is  the 
same  as  in  the  group  of  three  described  above. 

Grooved  Clubs.  On  plate  36,  f,  g,  are  shown  two  of  these  objects. 
The  collection  contains  four  complete  specimens  and  one  fragment. 
The  former  are  from  burial  cists  in  White  Dog  Cave,  and  the  frag¬ 
ment  is  from  a  looted  and  partly  burned-out  burial  cist  in  Cave  6. 
The  best  preserved  of  these  is  one  of  a  pair  found  with  the  mummy 
of  an  adult  male  in  Cist  27.  It  is  20£  inches  in  length,  2  inches  wide 
at  the  broad  end,  and  tapers  to  1|  inches  in  width  at  the  small  end; 
the  average  thickness  is  f  of  an  inch.  The  warping  of  the  stick  may 
be  partly  accidental  as  it  will  be  noted  that  the  two  specimens 
figured  are  not  bent  in  the  same  direction.  The  edges  and  broad 
surfaces  are  rounded  (see  cross-section  of  the  one  illustrated  in  g). 
On  each  side  are  four  deep  parallel  longitudinal  grooves  17  inches 
long,  with  a  break  at  one  point  as  shown  in  the  drawing.  These 
grooves  are  neatly  made,  evenly  spaced,  V-shaped  cuts.  Two 
inches  from  the  small  end  the  club  is  ringed  by  a  deep  groove,  set 
at  a  slight  angle  and  widened  at  one  edge  to  a  broad  curved  notch; 
in  thy  groove  are  traces  of  cord  or  sinew  wrapping.  A  cement-like 
substance,  thickest  about  the  edge  of  the  notch,  still  adheres  to 
one  side  of  the  stick,  and  seems  to  have  been  put  on  over  the 
wrappings.  1 1  is  possible  that  the  groove  and  notch  may  represent 
a  seat  for  a  wrist  cord.  There  are  two  other  much  shallower  en¬ 
circling  grooves,  one  4  inches,  the  other  5j  inches  from  the  small 
end;  in  these  also  are  marks  of  wrappings.  All  surfaces  of  the 
club  show  careful  finish,  but  no  traces  of  paint,  the  only  color  being 
a  thin  red  line  in  one  of  the  grooves  which  is  probably  a  print  from 
a  wrapping  cord.  The  edges  and  ends  of  the  stick  are  not  bruised 
or  battered.  Because  of  age  and  partial  decay  the  club  now  weighs 
but  2\  ounces,  but  an  undecayed  fragment  from  Cave  6  shows  the 
original  wood  to  have  been  dense  and  heavy. 

The  foregoing  description  will  answer  for  all  the  clubs  in  the 
collection,  as  they  show  little  individual  variation.  While  we  can 
assign  no  specific  use  to  these  objects,  we  do  not  think  they  are 
rabbit-sticks  such  as  those  used  among  the  Pueblo  tribes.1  Most 
of  the  latter  differ  from  these  in  some  details,  particularly  the 

i  Mr.  C.  C.  Willoughby  has  suggested  that  they  may  have  been  used  to  ward  off  spears  after 
the  manner  in  which  the  natives  of  one  of  the  Solomon  Islands  use  an  odd-shaped  club  for 
fending  off  spears,  and  also  as  a  weapon  of  defense. 


Peabody  Museum  Papers 


Vol.  VIII,  No.  2,  Plate  36 


a.  Wooden  implement;  b,  Wooden  gaming  ball;  c,  Ceremonial  stick;  d,  e,  Opposite  ends 
of  wooden  device;  f,  g,  Grooved  clubs  accompanying  atlatls.  All  from  White  Dog  Cave 
except  a,  which  is  from  Cave  14.  (b,  about  |;  a,  c-g,  about  1/5.) 


OF  NORTHEASTERN  ARIZONA 


89 


familiar  type  used  by  the  Hopi,  which  in  addition  to  having  a  hand 
grip  cut  at  one  end,  is  as  a  rule  decorated  by  a  painting  with  a  pre¬ 
scribed  design,  one  element  of  which  is  a  pair  of  black  markings 
symbolizing  rabbit  ears  or  rabbit  feet.  An  ungrooved  rabbit-stick, 
6  inches  longer  than  our  grooved  clubs  but  somewhat  resembling 
them  in  shape,  is  in  the  Peabody  Museum.  It  was  collected  by  Dr. 
Edward  Palmer  in  1875  from  the  Diegueno  Indians  and  is  cata¬ 
logued  as  a  “boomerang.”  Clubs  identical  with  our  specimens  were 
found  in  a  pit-shrine  near  Laguna,  New  Mexico,  by  Mrs.  Parsons,1 
and  Hough  figures  one  from  a  cave  near  Lava,  New  Mexico.2  In 
the  Peabody  Museum  are  fragments  of  two  grooved  clubs  from 
Yucatan  which  differ  from  ours  only  in  that  the  broad  surfaces 
and  the  edges  are  flat  instead  of  rounded,  and  that  there  are  a 
greater  number  of  the  parallel  grooves.  The  sculptures  of  Chichen 
Itza  frequently  depict  these  clubs,  usually  in  the  hands  of  warriors 
who  also  carry  atlatls  and  atlatl  spears.  One  is  figured  most  real¬ 
istically  on  the  sculptured  top  of  an  altar  in  the  outer  chamber  or 
vestibule  of  the  Temple  of  the  Tigers,  where  it  is  shown  in  the  left 
hand  of  a  warrior,  who  bears  as  well  an  atlatl  and  sheaf  of  spears. 

In  company  with  all  the  grooved  clubs  noted  either  atlatls  or 
some  adjunct  of  the  atlatl  were  found.  The  significance  of  this  is 
two-fold;  first,  that  it  aids  in  establishing  the  identity  of  the 
Laguna  pit-shrine  and  Lava  cave  specimens  as  Basket -maker; 
second,  that  it  shows  these  clubs  to  be  a  distinct  type  used  by  a 
people  who  also  used  the  atlatl.  That  the  Laguna  clubs  were  found 
with  other  offerings  most  of  which  were  feather  sticks  of  relatively 
recent  make  does  not,  to  our  minds,  affect  the  question  of  their 
antiquity ;  the  probable  explanation  of  their  presence  in  the  shrine 
being  that  they  were  found  in  a  Basket-maker  cave  by  some  Pueblo 
Indian  who  regarded  them  as  appropriate  offerings  for  the  same 
reason  that  ancient  arrow  points  are  still  prized  by  the  Pueblos  as 
fetishes.  This  seems  all  the  more  likely  as  the  Zuni  are  said  by 
Mr.  Cushing  to  have  recovered  baskets  from  prehistoric  deposits.3 

Planting  Sticks.  In  plate  37  is  a  series  of  planting  sticks:  num¬ 
bers  a,  c,  d,  and  g  were  found  in  Cist  24,  White  Dog  Cave;  e  and  f 
are  from  Cave  9. 

The  one  shown  in  g,  we  regard  as  a  type  specimen  of  Basket- 
maker  planting  stick;  it  is  45  inches  in  length  and  is  made  from  a 

1  Parsons,  1918,  figures  36,  38,  39.  2  Hough,  1914,  p.  19,  figure  21.  3  Ibid.,  1919,  p.  267. 


90 


BASKET-MAKER  CAVES 


root  of  some  hardwood  tree,  possibly  oak.  The  whole  surface  has 
been  smoothed  by  grinding,  but  very  little  altered  in  shape.  The 
smoothing  process  has  removed  all  bark  except  that  in  the  deep 
depressions  such  as  occur  in  roots.  One  end  has  been  worked  down 
to  a  thin  blade  having  a  rounded  point  and  one  sharp  edge.  The 
blade  is  2  inches  in  width  and  begins  17  inches  from  the  end  of  the 
stick.  It  has  a  smooth,  almost  polished  surface.  The  crook  at  the 
proximal  end  is  natural,  but  it  gives  the  implement  a  nice  balance 
when  held  in  position  for  use.  This  specimen  shows  long  service. 

The  sticks  represented  in  e,  f,  differ  but  little  from  the  one  just 
described.  Both  are  made  from  roots;  f,  is  42^  inches  in  length  and 
has  a  very  thin  blade  with  one  sharp  edge;  e,  is  32  inches  in  length 
with  a  blade  2f  inches  wide,  sharp  on  the  end  and  curved  edge. 

The  Cliff-dweller  planting  sticks  which  correspond  to  these  in 
form  are  much  lighter  in  weight  with  thinner  blades,  and  nearly 
straight,  carefully  shaped  handles  that  normally  terminate  in 
round  knobs.1 

The  one  figured  in  a,  found  with  mummy  1  in  Cist  24,  is  of  a 
different  type,  having  a  plain  flattened  point  instead  of  a  thin- 
edged  blade;  it  is  49  inches  in  length  and  averages  |  of  an  inch  in 
diameter.  One  end  is  worked  down  to  a  flat  point,  the  other  end 
has  an  artificial  crook.  It  is  made  from  a  peeled  limb  of  some 
hard  wood.  Knots  are  rubbed  down  and  smoothed.  This  stick  is 
dark  in  color  and  polished  for  its  entire  length  by  handling  and 
wear. 

The  specimen  shown  in  b,  from  Cist  6,  White  Dog  Cave,  is  made 
from  a  heavy  greasewood  stick;  it  has  a  flattened  point  like  the 
one  just  described.  Simple  sticks  of  this  nature  are  also  common 
in  cliff-dwellings,  and  are  used  today  by  the  Navajo. 

The  implement,  c,  is  made  from  a  rather  light  wood  and  has  a 
neatly  tapered  point;  the  crook  at  the  small  end  is  partly  natural; 
d  is  32  inches  long  and  is  made  of  a  slender  greasewood  stick;  it 
has  a  long  finely  tapering  point.  The  entire  length  of  the  imple¬ 
ment  has  been  smoothed  and  rounded.  The  point  is  slightly  pol¬ 
ished. 

Scoop-like  Objects.  Wooden  objects  similar  to  those  repre¬ 
sented  on  plate  38,  g,  h,  i,  were  found  so  regularly  in  Basket-maker 

1  See  Kidder-Guernaey,  1919,  plate  47,  d,  e;  the  stick  shown  in  plate  47,  c,  we  now  think  is 
probably  Basket-maker.  It  was  found  with  a  disturbed  burial  in  a  small  cave  in  Sagi  Canyon. 


Peabody  Museum  Papers 


Vol.  VIII,  No.  2,  Plate  37 


Planting  sticks.  All  from  White  Dog  Cave  with  the  exception  of  e  and  f, 
which  are  from  Cave  7.  (About  1/7.) 


OF  NORTHEASTERN  ARIZONA 


91 


caves  that  we  came  to  regard  their  discovery  in  the  preliminary 
examination  of  a  site  as  an  indication  that  other  traces  of  Basket- 
maker  occupancy  would  be  found.  For  this  reason  they  are  given 
a  more  detailed  description  than  their  commonplace  appearance 
might  seem  to  warrant.  All  of  them  have  very  much  the  same 
general  form  as  those  illustrated ;  this  seems  due  to  selection  rather 
than  to  shaping  as  they  are  simply  wooden  slabs  from  small  logs, 
the  outer  or  convex  surface  natural,  the  inner  side  and  ends  usually 
charred  by  fire.  From  this  and  their  appearance  as  a  whole,  we 
judge  that  they  were  merely  unconsumed  pieces  of  firewood,  se¬ 
lected,  as  before  stated,  on  account  of  their  shape.  A  few,  how¬ 
ever,  show  no  burning,  being  shells  of  wood  rifted  from  the  outer 
part  of  a  timber,  then  ground  at  the  ends  to  the  required  length. 

One  unvarying  feature  of  these  objects  is  their  worn  and  rounded 
edges;  we  once  used  a  similar  piece  of  wood  to  scrape  the  loose 
sand  from  a  cist  and  found  that  the  edges  soon  became  worn  in  the 
same  way;  for  this  reason  we  are  inclined  to  think  they  were  em¬ 
ployed  principally  for  digging  cists.  They  were,  no  doubt,  found 
useful  for  other  purposes,  as  one  in  the  collection  has  a  quantity  of 
caked  yellow  pigment  adhering  to  its  concave  side.  Apparently 
it  had  been  used  as  a  palette.  Such  slabs  might  also  have  served 
as  rude  food  trays,  and  possibly  for  beating  and  shredding  grass, 
a  guess  that  we  hazarded  in  our  first  report.  Still  another  possible 
function  for  these  objects  might  have  been  transferring  hot  stones 
from  the  fire  to  cooking  baskets,  in  which  case  they  may  have  been 
used  in  pairs.  Though  all  those  found  were  not  saved  the  collection 
contains  nineteen  pieces  ranging  in  size  from  5|  inches  long  and  3 
inches  wide  to  18|  inches  long  and  6  inches  wide,  the  average  di¬ 
mensions  being  7  inches  long  and  4  wide,  a  convenient  size  to  use 
in  the  hand. 

Hough  figures  “  a  shell  of  wood  ”  from  Tularosa  cave  which 
resembles  the  implements  just  described; 1  while  another  from  the 
Mesa  Verde  apparently  identical  with  ours  is  figured  by  Morris.2 

Curved  Wooden  Tools.  Our  two  specimens  are  so  closely  similar 
to  each  other  that  it  is  probable  they  represent  a  definite  type. 
The  better  preserved  example  (plate  36,  a)  is  a  piece  of  very  hard, 
close-grained  wood,  12  inches  long.  Its  pronounced  curve  is  ap¬ 
parently  natural,  but  all  its  surfaces  have  been  worked  down  by 

1  Hough,  1914,  plate  14,  figure  2.  2  Morris,  1919,  a;  plate  44,  e. 


92 


BASKET-MAKER  CAVES 


whittling  or  scraping.  One  end  is  almost  round,  the  other  much 
thinner.  The  middle  part  of  the  concave  side  is  worn  to  a  slim 
rounded  edge  and  is  highly  polished  by  long  use.  The  two  ends  are 
stained  dark  by  much  handling.  The  object  was  obviously  held 
by  the  ends  and  worked  toward  the  body  like  a  modern  draw- 
knife.  The  unscratched  condition  and  high  polish  of  the  concave 
edge  shows  that  it  must  have  been  used  on  some  non-abrasive  sub¬ 
stance.  Its  curve  fits  the  thigh  so  well  that  we  have  thought  the 
implement  might  have  been  employed  in  some  way  for  dressing  or 
suppling  hides  held  over  the  knee. 

The  second  specimen,  though  a  trifle  longer,  is  of  the  same  shape 
and  bears  the  same  polish  on  the  inner  edge. 

Other  Objects  of  Wood.  On  plate  41,  a,  is  illustrated  a  pair  of 
slim  worked  twigs,  1\  inches  long  and  ^  of  an  inch  in  diameter. 
The  two  are  held  together  by  a  string  tied  in  little  grooves  that 
encircle  their  lower  ends;  this  is  evidently  a  permanent  attach¬ 
ment  but  it  is  loose  enough  to  allow  the  two  sticks  to  be  spread 
apart.  An  adjustable  tie  was  evidently  used  at  the  upper  end, 
for  there  only  one  twig  is  grooved  and  the  other  has  a  small  hole 
drilled  through  it.  A  string  is  made  fast  to  the  grooved  stick;  its 
loose  end  was  undoubtedly  passed  through  the  hole,  pulled  tight 
and  made  fast  when  it  was  desired  to  close  the  pair  together  and 
hold  them  in  place.  A  number  of  similar  objects  are  in  the  Grand 
Gulch  collection  in  the  American  Museum,  New  York  (H-13180 
and  H-13267) ;  these  sticks  are  also  tied  permanently  together  at 
their  lower  ends,  and  have  a  loose-ended  string  set  in  a  groove  at 
the  upper  end  of  one  of  them.  The  other  stick,  in  each  of  the  New 
York  pairs,  has  a  little  string  loop  instead  of  the  drilled  eye  of  the 
example  here  illustrated.  All  these  specimens  were  evidently 
designed  to  be  clamped  over  and  made  fast  about  objects  6  or  7 
inches  wide  and  not  over  J  of  an  inch  thick.  As  to  what  such 
objects  might  have  been  we  are  entirely  ignorant.  A  wooden  awl 
about  6  inches  long,  made  from  a  peeled  greasewood  stick,  was 
found;  the  butt  is  cut  off  square  and  the  other  end  is  whittled  to 
a  sharp  point.  For  a  variety  of  other  specimens  made  wholly  or  in 
part  of  wood,  see  under  “Ceremonial  Objects.” 


Peabody  Museum  Papers 


Vol.  VIII,  No.  2,  Plate  38 


a,  b,  c,  Skin  bag  and  contents;  d,  e,  f,  Manos  or  grinding  stones;  g,  h,  i,  Wooden  scoops, 
a,  b,  c,  Cave  14;  d-i,  White  Dog  Cave.  (About  J.) 


OF  NORTHEASTERN  ARIZONA 


93 


OBJECTS  OF  STONE 

Manos.  These  are  intimately  related  to  the  domestic  life  of 
corn-growing  Indians,  and  in  a  measure  furnish  an  index  to  their 
progress  as  agriculturists.  The  manos  of  the  more  highly  de¬ 
veloped  tribes,  such  as  the  Pueblos,  show  a  tendency  towards 
specialized  forms;  while  those  used  by  people  of  less  firmly  estab¬ 
lished  corn-eating  habits  are  as  a  rule  stones  of  convenient  shape 
with  little  or  no  alteration  of  the  original  form  other  than  that 
due  to  wear.  Basket-maker  manos  belong  to  the  latter  class. 
Three  typical  examples  from  White  Dog  Cave  are  reproduced  in 
plate  38,  d,  e,  f. 

The  latter  is  5f  inches  long,  3§  inches  wide,  and  1|  inches  thick. 
It  is  made  from  a  thin  slab  of  indurated  sandstone  the  edges 
roughly  worked  down  to  give  the  implement  an  oval  shape.  Only 
one  surface  shows  use,  this  is  ground  nearly  flat.  The  one  figured 
in  d,  is  3f  inches  long,  2f  inches  wide  and  If  inches  thick;  it  is  a 
hard  lava-like  stone  of  natural  shape.  One  side  is  much  worn  and 
has  a  convex  surface;  a  small  area  of  the  top  also  shows  signs  of 
use.  That  shown  in  e,  is  slightly  larger  than  the  last  and  of  the 
same  material.  The  form  shows  slight  modification  and  both  sides 
are  about  equally  worn. 

In  addition  to  the  above  specimens,  there  is  in  the  collection 
half  a  mano  of  soft  sandstone  with  edges  pecked  and  ground  to 
give  it  an  oval  shape.  Both  sides  are  much  worn;  one  shows 
traces  of  a  dark  red,  the  other  of  a  yellow  color,  presumably  evi¬ 
dences  of  secondary  use  as  a  paint  grinder.  Another  stone  of 
about  the  same  size  but  which  is  probably  not  a  mano,  is  a  rounded 
river  boulder  4§  inches  long  and  2\  inches  thick.  A  portion  of 
either  side  bears  a  high  polish  quite  different  from  the  rough  sur¬ 
face  produced  by  grinding  on  a  metate.  This  polish  is  obviously 
the  result  of  long  rubbing  on  a  non-abrasive  surface;  work  on 
hides  or  use  in  hulling  seeds  in  a  basket  may  be  suggested. 

Metate.  A  single  broken  specimen  was  found.  Like  the  manos 
it  is  of  a  crude  and  unspecialized  type,  being  merely  a  flat  slab  un¬ 
modified  except  for  a  hollow  on  one  side,  the  width  of  which  is  the 
same  as  the  length  of  the  manos. 

Chipped  Knife  Blades.  One  of  these  specimens  (plate  35,  j)  was 
found  at  the  right  hand  of  mummy  2,  Cist  27,  White  Dog  Cave. 


94 


BASKET-MAKER  CAVES 


Its  length  is  6|  inches,  its  greatest  width  is  2|  inches,  the  average 
thickness  is  \  of  an  inch.  The  material  is  a  mottled  yellow  flint. 
The  point  for  1|  inches  is  a  dark  red  which  seems  due  to  staining 
rather  than  being  the  natural  color  of  the  stone.  It  was  reduced 
to  an  even  thinness  by  the  chipping  off  at  regular  intervals  of  long 
broad  flakes,  at  so  obtuse  an  angle  that  no  central  ridge  is  left,  the 
face  of  the  blade  being  slightly  convex  instead  of  angular.  The 
cutting  edge  is  keen,  the  result  of  fine  secondary  chipping.  The 
stem  is  tapered  to  a  wedge-shaped  base. 

The  blade  shown  in  k  was  found  with  mummy  3,  Cist  22.  It  had 
been  broken  in  two  pieces  before  burial;  the  halves  lay  at  a  little 
distance  from  each  other  and  one  of  them  was  discolored  by  some 
agency  to  which  the  other  was  not  exposed.  This  blade  measures 
65  inches  in  length,  2]  inches  in  width,  and  averages  slightly  under 
I  of  an  inch  in  thickness.  The  material  is  chalcedony.  It  differs 
but  little  from  the  first  specimen,  except  that  the  end  is  rounded 
and  shows  signs  of  an  attempt  to  grind  away  a  slight  protuberance 
that  had  resisted  the  original  chipping.  On  the  base  of  the  blade 
are  traces  of  the  gum  that  once  served  to  cement  it  to  its  haft. 
The  latter  was  also  found  in  the  cist;  and  although  it  is  badly 
rotted  and  shrunken,  its  notch  still  fits  the  blade.  In  shape  it  is  a 
duplicate  of  the  haft  next  to  be  described. 

The  workmanship  of  these  two  knives  compares  very  favorably 
with  that  of  similar  implements  from  other  parts  of  North  America. 
In  shape  and  general  appearance  they  most  closely  resemble  the 
large  chipped  knives  of  Mexico  and  Central  America. 

Hafted  Knife.  The  specimen  shown  in  plate  35, 1,  is  from  Cist  6, 
White  Dog  Cave.  The  blade,  part  of  which  is  unfortunately  miss¬ 
ing,  was  probably  once  4|  to  5  inches  long;  it  is  2  inches  wide  at 
the  base  and  has  a  thickness  of  I  inch.  The  material  is  a  close- 
grained  white  stone.  The  chipping  of  the  portion  that  remains  is 
rather  coarse,  though  the  notches  and  barbs  show  skillful  flaking. 

The  wooden  handle  measures  3j  inches  in  length,  a  fraction  over 
1  inch  in  width,  and  has  an  average  thickness  of  f  of  an  inch.  The 
lower  end  thickens  considerably  to  allow  for  a  notch  |  of  an  inch 
deep  into  which  the  blade  is  set  and  there  held  in  place  with  cement¬ 
like  gum  reinforced  by  a  small  wooden  wedge  and  wrappings  of  pitch- 
smeared  string.  The  handle  is  well-preserved  and  shows  careful 
finish;  it  appears  to  have  been  made  from  a  section  of  a  small 


Peabody  Museum  Papers 


You.  VIII,  No.  2,  Plate  39 


White  Dog  Cave 

Ceremonial  objects:  a,  Stuffed  bird  skin;  b,  Wand;  c,  Deer  tail.  (About  3/5.) 


OF  NORTHEASTERN  ARIZONA 


95 


limb  worked  down  to  shape  by  cutting  away  two  surfaces;  both 
the  wide  sides  thus  produced  are  slightly  convex,  while  the  edges 
are  nearly  flat.  At  the  butt  the  handle  curves  and  terminates  in  a 
neatly  finished  end,  the  peculiar  form  of  which  is  duplicated  in  two 
other  less  well-preserved  specimens;  one  of  them  is  the  handle  of 
the  large  chipped  blade,  k,  previously  described.  This  type  of  butt 
may  represent  an  individual  whim,  or  it  may  perhaps  prove  to  be 
a  characteristic  of  Basket-maker  hafts.  There  are  a  number  of 
stone  knives  with  plain  handles  from  this  general  region  in  the 
collections  of  various  museums;  some  or  all  of  these  may  be 
Basket-maker,  but  unfortunately  the  data  accompanying  them 
leave  doubt  as  to  their  exact  origin.  What  are,  however,  surely 
Cliff-dweller  hafts  from  Aztec,  New  Mexico,  are  described  and 
figured  by  Morris,1  and  one  from  the  Mesa  Verde  is  illustrated  by 
Nordenskiold.2  Hoffman  figures  two  modern  Ute  knives  with 
plain  handles.3 

Pipe  Drill.  The  chipped  point  shown  in  plate  35,  e,  is  apparently 
an  old  darthead  remounted  in  its  present  handle.  It  is  of  very 
hard,  lustrous  flint,  1 inches  long,  and  ^  of  an  inch  in  breadth  at 
the  base.  Both  edges  are  much  worn  down  and  beveled  by  long- 
continued  boring,  the  plane  of  the  bevels  indicating  clockwise  rota¬ 
tion.  The  handle  is  a  stick  2f  inches  long,  f  of  an  inch  thick,  having 
one  end  rounded,  and  the  other  notched  to  provide  a  seat  for  the 
chipped  point,  which  is  held  in  place  by  a  seizing  of  fiber  string. 

The  wear  on  the  point  indicates  clearly  that  this  specimen  was 
used  as  a  drill,  and  the  nature  of  the  haft  confirms  this.  Held  in 
position  for  boring,  the  haft  is  found  to  be  just  the  right  length  to 
bear  against  the  palm  of  the  hand  at  the  base  of  the  index  finger; 
in  this  position  the  drill  can  be  easily  turned  by  the  index  and  third 
fingers  and  the  thumb,  while  pressure  can  be  applied  to  the  butt 
by  the  palm.  The  chipped  point  exactly  fits  the  bores  of  the 
Basket-maker  stub  pipes. 

No  pipes  were  found  in  1916-1917,  but  type  examples  are  shown 
in  figure  94,  a,  b,  c,  of  our  previous  report. 

Graver.  A  tiny  stone  tool,  evidently  designed  for  scratching 
fine  lines  on  wood  or  bone,  is  illustrated  in  plate  35,  g.  It  is  an 
irregularly  shaped  jasper  flake,  less  than  an  inch  in  diameter,  and 
3^  of  an  inch  thick;  the  top  is  convex;  the  lower  side  is  flat  at  one 

1  1919,  p.  33  and  figures  17, 18.  2  1893,  p.  97,  figure  59.  3  1896,  figures  52, 53. 


96 


BASKET-MAKER  CAVES 


place  where  a  small  and  very  sharp  point  has  been  carefully 
chipped  out.  Such  an  implement  as  this  must  have  been  used  to 
incise  the  clean-cut  parallel  lines  seen  on  the  curved  wooden  clubs 
figured  on  plate  36,  f,  g. 

Flaking  Tool.  This  implement  (figure  15)  from  plundered  Cist  6, 
White  Dog  Cave,  is  included  here  because  of  its  intimate  con¬ 
nection  with  stone  chipping.  So  far  as  we  know  it  is  the  only  com¬ 
plete  example  of  a  prehistoric  flaker  of  its  type  that  has  yet  been 
found.  It  consists  of  an  antler  or  very  hard  bone  point  mounted 
on  a  wooden  shaft  in  the  manner  indicated  in  the  drawing,  which 
also  shows  more  clearly  than  a  description  the  shape  of  the  point 
itself.  The  length  of  the  latter  is  3 f  inches,  of  which  ^  of  an  inch 
projects  beyond  the  end  of  the  shaft;  the  width  appears  to  be  uni¬ 
formly  I  of  an  inch.  The  projecting  portion  tapers  to  j  of  an  inch 
at  the  extreme  end.  The  shaft  is  a  piece  of  an  old  atlatl  spear 
shaft  35  inches  long.  The  bone  point  is  bound  to  the  smaller  end 
of  this  by  seizings  of  skin  overwrapped  with  sinew.  The  larger 
end  is  worked  to  a  rounded  point,  for  the  purpose,  perhaps,  of 
allowing  it  to  be  easily  thrust  into  the  sand  to  hold  it  upright  while 
the  workman  was  using  other  tools.  In  the  middle  are  a  number 
of  turns  of  a  wide  thong  of  skin  wound  spirally  about  the  shaft 
and  running  towards  the  working  end.  These  are  applied  in  two 
layers,  one  above  the  other;  at  the  distal  end  they  are  held  in 
place  by  a  binding  of  sinew  and  there  are  signs  that  they  once  ex¬ 
tended  farther  down  the  shaft  than  they  do  at  present.  These 
wrappings  were  probably  cut  from  hide  with  the  hair  on  it,  al¬ 
though  the  fur  has  now  almost  entirely  disappeared;  their  purpose 
will  be  discussed  later. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  this  implement  was  used  as  a  stone- 
flaker.  Pope  figures  a  Yurok  bone  pointed  arrow-flaker  with  a 
shaft  17  f  inches  long,  which  is  very  similar  to  this  specimen.1  Ran 
illustrates  another  from  Nevada  which  he  describes  as  a  slender 
blunt  point  of  horn  bound  with  cotton  cord  to  a  wooden  handle 
about  the  thickness  of  an  arrow  shaft.  According  to  the  drawing 
the  length  of  the  latter  is  29.)  inches.2  Cushing  gives  a  sketch  of 
an  arrowmaker  using  a  long-hafted  flaker,  but  provides  no  infor¬ 
mation  as  to  the  data  on  which  the  drawing  is  based,  though  he 
briefly  describes  the  way  the  implement  is  used.3  The  following 

1  1918,  plate  27.  2  1876,  p.  96,  and  figure  340.  3  1895,  figure  6. 


Peabody  Museum  Papers 


Vol.  VIII,  No.  2,  Plate  40 


White  Dog  Cave 

Objects  forming  bundle  from  lap  of  mummy  (plate  7,  b).  Cist  31.  (About  i.) 


OF  NORTHEASTERN  ARIZONA 


97 


is  Schumacher’s  description  of  the  Klamath  method  of  flaking: 
“  The  tool  is  worked  with  the  right  hand,  while  the  lower  part  of 
the  handle,  usually  ornamented,  is  held  between  the  arm  and  the 
body  so  as  to  guide  the  instrument  with  a  steady  hand.”  1  The 
foregoing  makes  clear  the  advantage  of  the  long  shaft,  but  does 
not  point  out  the  fact  that  the  weight  of  the  body  can,  by  means 
of  it,  be  brought  to  assist  the  pressure  of  the  hand. 

We  can  find  no  reference  to  padding  of  that  part  of  the  shaft 
that  is  held  between  the  arm  and  body;  such  was  undoubtedly 


a,  Flaking  stone;  b,  Arrow-flaker  of  antler  in  wooden  haft,  much  reduced  in  size;  c,  End 
of  arrow-flaker;  d,  Package  of  sinew  cord.  All  from  White  Dog  Cave.  (About  with 

the  exception  of  b.) 

the  purpose  of  the  central  hide  wrappings  on  our  specimen.  A 
soft  furry  padding  of  this  sort  must  have  contributed  greatly  to 
the  comfort  of  the  user,  particularly  if  his  arm  and  body  were  not 
protected  by  clothing;  and  it  probably  helped  also  to  secure  a 
firmer  grip  than  would  be  offered  by  the  bare  shaft. 

Flaking  Stone.  The  specimen  shown  in  a,  figure  15,  is  a  small 
flat  unworked  stone,  oval  in  outline,  inches  long,  2|  inches  wide 
and  |  inch  thick.  It  is  much  like  certain  stones  obtained  in  the 
Museum’s  explorations  of  ancient  burial  places  in  Erie  County, 
New  York,  which  were  invariably  accompanied  by  bone  flaking 
implements  as  well  as  finished  and  unfinished  chipped  points  and 
knives.  The  Museum  collection  also  contains  similar  stones  from 
Madisonville,  Ohio,2  and  eastern  Massachusetts.  Mr.  Willoughby 
has  identified  these  stones  as  forming  part  of  the  flint  worker’s 
equipment.  The  stones  from  New  York,  Ohio,  and  Massachusetts 
are  marked  with  scorings  which  are  not  present  on  this  specimen; 

1  Quoted  in  Holmes,  1919,  p.  312.  2  See  Hooton  and  Willoughby,  1920,  plate  6,  1,  m. 


98 


BASKET-MAKER  CAVES 


our  tentative  identification  of  this  as  a  flaking  stone  is  strengthened 
by  the  fact  that  it  was  found  among  the  partly  rifled  contents  of 
Cist  6  which  also  held  the  hafted  flaking  tool  described  above,  as 
well  as  a  small  skin  bag  containing  two  nearly  finished  points,  a 
number  of  flakes  of  flint  and  various  colored  jasper,  a  combination 
of  objects  exactly  duplicating  those  found  in  the  New  York  graves. 

OBJECTS  OF  CLAY,  BONE,  ETC. 

Pottery.  No  specimens  of  true  pottery,  either  vessel  or  sherd, 
have  yet  been  found  by  us  under  circumstances  indicating  that  it 
was  a  Basket -maker  product.  All  but  one  of  the  several  jars  dis¬ 
covered  came  from  the  surface  sand  overlying  the  Basket-maker 
deposits;  they  are  of  common  cliff-house  ware,  and  were  un¬ 
doubtedly  cached  in  the  caves  at  a  comparatively  late  date.  The 
exception  is  a  pot  found  in  Sunflower  Cave  in  1915,  lying  below  a 
cliff-house  floor.  This  was  figured  in  our  previous  report  and  re¬ 
ferred  to  as  possibly  of  Basket-maker  origin.1  It  is  of  plain  black 
ware,  uncorrugated;  in  shape  it  is  almost  spherical.  No  further 
evidence  that  the  Basket-makers  produced  vessels  of  this  type 
has  Since  come  to  light,  and  we  are  inclined  to  consider  it  early 
Puebloan. 

The  only  specimen  that  even  remotely  resembles  pottery  was 
found  in  Cave  6.  It  is  a  fragment  from  the  rim  of  a  shallow  dish¬ 
like  receptacle  nearly  \  inch  thick,  made  of  unburnecl  clay  heavily 
tempered  with  shreds  of  cedar  bark.  It  was  molded  in  a  shallow 
basket,  the  print  of  which  is  plainly  visible  in  the  outer  surface  of 
the  sherd  (plate  25,  a).  The  inner  side  is  smoothed  off,  but  has  an 
irregular,  wavy  surface  as  if  it  had  been  done  by  the  fingers.  We 
do  not  know  whether  this  specimen  is  merely  a  fragment  of  a  clay 
lining  put  in  a  basket  to  render  it  watertight  or  fireproof,2  or 
whether  it  really  represents  an  early  attempt  at  pottery  making. 

Bone  Objects.  Objects  of  this  material  described  under  other 
heads  are:  beads,  flaker,  decorated  tubes,  rattle  handles,  plain 
tubes,  and  whistles.  This  practically  completes  the  list  of  speci¬ 
mens  made  of  bone,  the  only  others  being  a  few  awls  (plate  42, 
e-h),  and  a  pair  of  un worked  cannon  bones  of  the  deer,  found 

>  Kidder-Guernsey,  1919,  plate  59,  a,  and  p.  144. 

2  Cushing  (1886,  p.  484)  describes  a  Havasupai  roasting  basket  lined  with  clay.  The  present 
object  may  have  been  made  for  a  like  purpose,  but  it  was  certainly  never  so  used,  as  bits  of  the 
cedar-bark  tempering  which  protrude  from  the  inner  surface  are  not  even  scorched. 


Peabody  Museum  Papers 


Vol.  VIII,  No.  2,  Plate  41 


a,  b,  c.  Objects  made  from  short  sections  of  sticks;  d,  e,  f,  Paired  bone  tubes;  g,  h,  Bone 
tubes.  All  from  White  Dog  Cave  except  f,  which  is  from  Sunflower  Cave.  (About  §.) 


OF  NORTHEASTERN  ARIZONA 


99 


carefully  wrapped  up  in  a  bunch  of  shredded  cedar  bark  at  the 
feet  of  mummy  1,  Cist  24,  White  Dog  Cave.  These  were  probably 
selected  and  laid  aside  to  be  fashioned  later  into  awls.  No  bone 
scrapers  occur. 

Dressed  Skin.  The  skins  of  animals  were  much  used :  some  as 
rawhide,  some  dried,  and  others  dressed  with  or  without  the  hair. 
Specimens  of  the  latter  were  very  finely  dressed,  being  as  soft  and 
pliable  as  the  best  buckskin  prepared  by  modern  Indians.  Deer 
and  mountain-sheep  skin  robes  have  already  been  mentioned. 
The  pelts  of  these  animals  were  also  extensively  employed  for 
minor  purposes,  as  in  cradle  edge-bindings  and  back-lashings,  in 
fur-string,  and  for  all  kinds  of  strong  thongs.  The  skins  of  prairie- 
dogs,  being  light  and  soft-furred  were  always  used  as  covers  for 
infants’  umbilical  pads. 

Bags  of  all  sorts  were  made  of  dressed  skin,  from  tiny  pouches 
to  hold  a  few  little  trinkets,  up  to  large  sacks  for  the  storage  of 
corn.  Some  have  the  hair  on,  others  do  not;  but  all  are  very  care¬ 
fully  made,  the  seams  neatly  stitched  with  sinew  or  fine  cord  and 
turned  inside.  The  most  characteristic  bags  were  produced  by 
sewing,  together  the  trimmed  skins  of  two  or  more  prairie-dogs  in 
such  a  way  that  the  neck  of  the  sack  was  formed  by  the  heads  of 
the  animals,  its  mouth  by  their  mouths.1  In  some  cases  as  many 
as  seven  or  eight  hides  were  used. 

Sinew.  The  many  references  in  this  report  to  the  use  of  sinew 
bindings  and  seizings  give  sufficient  evidence  of  its  value  to  the 
Basket-makers.  It  was  employed  whenever  a  firm  flat  ligature 
was  desired,  as  well  as  for  thread  in  cases  requiring  extra  fine  and 
strong  sewing.  The  kinds  of  sinew  are,  of  course,  not  identifiable, 
but  the  bunch  of  it  in  its  raw  state  shown  in  figure  15,  d,  appears  to 
have  been  taken  from  some  large  animal. 

Feathers.  Feathers  were  used  for  the  following  purposes:  in 
hair  ornaments;  in  pendants;  as  edgings  in  fur  cloth;  for  the 
winging  of  atlatl  darts;  and  in  the  make-up  of  a  variety  of  objects 
of  unknown  use  which  we  have  classed  together  as  probably  cere¬ 
monial. 

1  Kidder-Guernsey,  1919,  figure  86. 


100 


BASKET-MAKER  CAVES 


CEREMONIAL  OBJECTS 

In  this  section  we  have  grouped  all  specimens  to  which  we  can¬ 
not  assign  a  definite  utilitarian  purpose.  The  nature  of  many  of 
them  leaves  little  doubt  as  to  their  ceremonial  or  fetishistic  use; 
as  to  others  the  case  is  less  clear. 

Ceremonial  Whip.  To  one  end  of  a  thin,  peeled  greasewood  stick 
about  20  inches  in  length  there  is  bound  a  flat,  three-strand  braid 
of  shredded  yucca  leaves,  8  inches  long;  to  the  end  of  this  is  tied 
a  small  bunch  of  the  twigs  of  the  plant  called  “  Brigham  tea”  ; 
the  twigs  are  10  inches  long,  so  that  the  total  length  of  the  speci¬ 
men  is  a  little  over  a  yard.  It  has  the  look  of  a  scourge  or  whip, 
but  its  real  use  is,  of  course,  unknown. 

Problematical  Objects.  In  Cist  27,  White  Dog  Cave,  were  found 
a  number  of  broken  sticks  tied  together  with  string.  On  undoing 
the  bundle  it  was  found  that  the  sticks  were  fragments  of  two 
singular  contrivances,  the  use  of  which  we  cannot  even  guess 
(plate  36,  d,  e).  One  is  complete,  the  upper  part  of  the  second  is 
missing.  They  are  slim  cottonwood  sticks  about  7  feet  long,  their 
lower,  ends  pointed,  and  the  first  foot  or  so  of  their  shafts  soiled 
and  scarred  as  if  they  had  been  repeatedly  thrust  into  graved}' 
earth.  The  arrangement  of  strings  at  the  upper  end  of  the  com¬ 
plete  specimen  is  better  explained  by  the  drawing  than  by  descrip¬ 
tion.  It  will  be  seen  that  there  are  two  cords  running  downward 
from  the  tip.  These  are  so  arranged  as  to  form  two  adjustable 
loops  along  the  shaft,  the  knotted  ends  of  the  strings  serving  to 
keep  these  loops  from  being  pulled  out  by  whatever  object  they 
were  designed  to  hold. 

The  object  shown  in  c,  is  a  hardwood  branch  27|  inches  long. 
The  bark  has  been  carefully  peeled  and  the  butt  end  smoothed  by 
rubbing.  For  a  distance  of  about  4  inches  from  the  butt  the  twigs 
have  been  cut  off  close  to  the  main  stem;  thence  to  the  tip  they 
are  also  cut  off,  but  their  bases  have  been  left  long  enough  to  give 
the  object  a  knobby  appearance.  The  ends  of  a  majority  of  these 
protruding  twig-stubs  are  merely  ground  down  to  a  flat  surface; 
but  three,  two  of  which  show  in  the  drawing,  have  neat,  shallow, 
cup-shaped  depressions  worked  in  them.  The  lower  four  inches  of 
the  stick,  from  which,  it  will  be  remembered,  the  projecting  twig- 
stubs  were  removed,  is  discolored  and  stained  as  if  by  having  been 


Peabody  Museum  Papers 


Vol.  VIII,  No.  2,  Plate  42 


White  Dog  Cave 

a,  Handle  for  deer-hoof  rattle;  b,  c,  d,  Bone  tubes;  e-h,  Bone  awls;  i,  Bone  whistle.  ($.) 


OF  NORTHEASTERN  ARIZONA 


101 


thrust  into  damp  earth  or  clay.  A  little  above  the  middle  are  two 
sets  of  sinew  bindings;  under  the  upper  one  of  these  are  remains  of 
the  quills  of  many  small  feathers  arranged  in  two  groups,  one  on 
either  side  of  the  shaft.  We  can  offer  no  suggestion  as  to  the  use  of 
this  specimen. 

Ceremonial  Wand.  The  unique  ceremonial  object  shown  in 
plate  39,  b,  was  found  with  mummy  2,  Cist  24,  White  Dog  Cave;  it 
was  wrapped  in  a  bag  made  of  prairie-dog  skins,  and  lay  between 
the  right  arm  and  side  of  the  mummy  under  the  fur-string  robe 
which  enveloped  the  body.  Details  that  are  not  obvious  in  the 
drawing  are  as  follows:  the  handle  of  wood  has  a  length  of  51- 
inches;  the  upper  end  is  carved  to  represent  the  head  of  a  bird; 
the  eyes  are  formed  by  two  small  disk  beads  of  shell  stuck  on  with 
pitch.  Adhering  to  the  head  about  the  eyes  are  tufts  of  the  fine 
reddish  hair  of  some  animal.  At  the  crown  of  the  head  there  is  a 
slight  depression  filled  with  hard  gum  or  pitch  in  which  are  a  few 
hairs  like  those  at  the  side  of  the  head.  These  may  be  the  remains 
of  a  crest,  or  the  result  of  accident.  The  appearance  of  the  spot 
gives  the  impression  that  some  object  about  the  size  of  the  disk 
beads  which  form  the  eyes,  had  at  one  time  been  fastened  here. 
At  the  lower  end  of  the  handle  its  under  side  is  embellished  for  a 
space  of  slightly  over  1§  inches  with  cross  hatching  of  fine  incised 
fines.  All  parts  of  the  handle  are  nicely  finished,  and  show,  par¬ 
ticularly  at  the  lower  end,  a  polish  due  to  use.  Attached  to  it  by 
a  thong  loop  are  five  pendent  strings  or  streamers  of  thick  soft- 
dressed  skin ;  part  of  one  of  these  is  broken  off,  the  remaining  four 
are  each  10  inches  in  length.  These  streamers  are  gathered  to¬ 
gether  at  the  upper  end  and  secured  to  the  loop  by  wrappings  of 
sinew.  Bound  to  the  upper  end  of  each  streamer  by  sinew  seizings 
are  tails  of  small  birds  and  animals,  and  feathers.  One  streamer 
has  five  blue  feathers,  five  small  brown  feathers,  and  one  white 
and  brown  feather;  the  next,  one  long  downy  feather,  one  large 
dark-colored  feather  trimmed  off  at  the  end  and  several  small 
brown  feathers.  The  third  has  the  quill  ends  of  two  large  dark- 
colored  feathers;  these  are  cut  down  to  a  length  of  3  inches,  and 
placed  parallel  to  each  other  with  the  lower  ends  fastened  to¬ 
gether  by  several  tight  turns  of  fine  sinew;  over  these  are  laid  a 
number  of  small  bright  yellow  feathers;  a  strand  of  human  hair 
3  inches  long  completes  the  group.  The  fourth  streamer  has 


102 


BASKET-MAKER  CAVES 


fastened  to  it  six  feathers  from  the  tail  of  some  small  woodpecker, 
and  two  prairie-dog  tails.  The  fifth  bears  several  blue  feathers, 
one  trimmed  black-and-white  feather,  the  tail  of  a  small  animal, 
the  fur  of  which  is  about  the  color  of  mink,  and  a  very  pretty  little 
abalone  shell  pendant. 

The  specimen  just  described,  like  a  number  of  objects  recovered 
from  Cist  24,  is  in  a  nearly  perfect  state  of  preservation.  Wrapped 
up  with  it  was  the  small  deer  tail  shown  in  c,  the  head  of  a  sap- 
sucker  ( Splegrapiais  varius  muchalis) 1  a,  and  what  appears  to  be 
the  end  of  a  bag  made  of  badger  skin  dressed  with  the  hair  on. 
The  bird  head  is  stuffed  with  fiber  or  grass,  and  the  tail  feathers  of 
the  bird,  tied  together  in  a  bundle,  are  thrust  into  the  skin  of  the 
neck.  A  Porno  doctor’s  outfit  in  the  Museum  collection  contains 
a  number  of  bird  heads  stuffed  with  grass  which  remind  one  at 
once  of  this  specimen. 

Ceremonial  Bundle.  In  plate  7,  b,  can  be  seen  what  is  doubtless 
a  ceremonial  bundle,  one  end  resting  in  the  lap  of  the  mummy,  the 
other  projecting  above  the  left  knee,  this  being  the  position  in 
which  it  was  found. 

In  the  center  of  the  bundle  lay  a  wand-like  stick,  14§  inches 
long,  which  is  shown  in  b,  plate  40.  One  end  has  a  blunt  point,  is 
slightly  polished  for  an  inch  or  more,  and  is  stained  a  dark  red 
color;  the  opposite  end  is  rounded  and  shows  traces  of  fire.  To 
one  side  of  the  blunt  end  and  projecting  beyond  is  tied  a  brush¬ 
like  arrangement  of  coarse  fiber  also  stained  dark  red.  The  same 
string  which  binds  the  fiber  to  the  stick  secures  to  it  a  long  feather 
of  which  there  remains  very  little  but  the  shaft.  Other  articles 
tied  about  the  stick  and  figured  in  the  plate,  are  as  follows: 

The  curious  object,  shown  in  d,  more  nearly  resembles  a  minia¬ 
ture  sandal  than  anything  else,  being  of  the  same  weave  as  a  cer¬ 
tain  type  of  Basket -maker  sandal.  The  strings  attached  to  it  are 
not,  however,  arranged  like  sandal  tie-strings.  There  is  a  dressed 
skin  thong,  colored  red,  woven  into  one  end;  this  may  be  an  un¬ 
finished  toe-fringe.  The  specimen  is  4  inches  long,  and  inches 
wide.  The  material  is  fiber  string,  except  the  dark  line  through 
the  center  which  is  of  human  hair  string. 

The  blade-like  object  of  tough,  close-grained  wood  shown  in  f, 
is  12  f  inches  long,  1|  inches  wide,  and  f  to  f  of  an  inch  thick. 

t  Identified  by  Mr.  O.  Bangs  of  the  Museum  of  Comparative  Zoology,  Harvard  University. 


Peabody  Museum  Papers 


Vol.  VIII,  No.  2,  Plate  43 


White  Dog  Cave 

a,  One  of  a  pair  of  bone  tubes  showing  compound  die  cemented  to  upper  end; 
b-k,  Compound  dice.  (Enlarged  1/5.) 


OF  NORTHEASTERN  ARIZONA 


103 


Both  the  pointed  and  the  rounded  ends  are  blackened  as  a  result 
of  shaping  or  hardening  by  fire.  The  edges  of  the  blunt  end  are 
rounded  for  something  over  a  hand’s  breadth;  for  the  remaining 
distance  to  the  beginning  of  the  point  both  edges  are  sharp.  One 
edge  is  rather  keener  than  the  other  and  shows  a  surface  smoothed 
by  wear. 

The  foreshaft  and  point  of  a  throwing  spear  c,  from  the  bundle 
is  the  largest  in  our  collection,  measuring  over  7  inches  in  length. 
The  point  of  red  jasper,  2|  inches  long,  1  inch  wide  at  base,  is  set 
in  a  notch  cut  in  the  end  of  the  shaft  and  secured  by  a  sinew  bind¬ 
ing  which  is  still  in  perfect  condition,  as  is  the  shaft  itself  except 
for  traces  of  decay  at  the  tapering  end.  This  specimen,  though 
our  largest,  is  not  as  long  as  the  foreshafts  in  the  Lang  collection 
from  San  Juan  County,  Utah,  now  in  the  Deseret  Museum,  which, 
according  to  the  table  given  by  Pepper,1  are  7|  inches  to  11|  inches 
in  length. 

The  tips  of  the  long  feather  shown  in  e,  is  7  inches  in  length;  the 
quill  at  its  upper  end  for  a  distance  of  2  inches  is  seized  with  fine 
flat  sinew  as  shown  in  the  drawing.  Another  feather,  of  which  only 
the  quill  remains,  measured  15 1  inches  in  length. 

Wrapped  about  the  bundle  were  the  remains  of  a  feather  head¬ 
dress  not  unlike  the  feather  crowns  used  by  various  California 
tribes  in  their  ceremonies.  The  method  of  tying  the  feathers  is 
shown  in  the  illustration,  a;  the  same  knot  is  also  used  by  the 
Wailaki  and  Shasta  Indians,  specimens  of  which  are  in  the  Museum 
collection. 

Ceremonial  Bone  Objects.  In  plate  41,  e,  will  be  seen  what  ap¬ 
pears  to  be  merely  a  pair  of  bone  tubes,  but  which  is  in  reality  a 
nearly  complete  example  of  a  very  puzzling  type  to  which  belong 
all  the  other  bone  specimens  illustrated  in  the  plate.  To  make  clear 
the  relationship  of  these  objects  a  detailed  description  is  necessary. 

The  two  halves  of  this  contrivance  are  tied  tightly  together  with 
a  strip  of  yucca  leaf.  The  right-hand  unit  of  the  pair  is  a  hollow 
bone,  6 1  inches  long,  highly  polished  as  if  by  long  use;  its  upper 
end  is  solidly  plugged  with  a  dark  pitchy  substance,  the  edge  of  the 
orifice  is  cut  by  six  small  V-shaped  notches;  the  lower  end  shows 
signs  of  having  once  been  similarly  plugged,  but  is  now  open;  just 
above  the  orifice  there  are  two  small  round  holes,  drilled  directly 

1  Pepper,  1905,  p.  129. 


104 


BASKET-MAKER  CAVES 


opposite  each  other  (only  one  shows  in  the  drawing).  The  left- 
hand  unit  is  made  up  of  two  bones  of  equal  length  fastened  to  each 
other  by  being  pushed  together  over  a  round  stick  which  fits  very 
tightly  in  their  hollow  interiors;  the  joint  is  further  secured  by  a 
sinew  cord  laced  back  and  forth  through  series  of  little  holes  drilled 
close  to  the  edge  of  each  bone  (three  of  these  holes  may  be  made 
out  in  the  drawing,  the  rest  are  hidden  by  the  main  yucca  leaf 
binding).  Just  below  the  upper  end  of  this  compound  bone  are 
two  horizontal  lines  of  small  round  pits,  or  incised  dots;  these  only 
run  half  way  around  and  do  not  appear  on  the  back.  The  end  of 
the  lower  piece  is  pierced  on  one  side  by  a  small  hole,  and  just 
above  the  orifice  there  is  scratched  a  single  encircling  line.  Neither 
end  of  the  left-hand  unit  gives  any  indication  of  having  been 
plugged  as  were  both  orifices  of  the  right-hand  bone. 

The  fragments  of  the  specimen  shown  in  d,  are  assembled  in 
what  were  doubtless  their  original  positions.  They  form  a  pair 
very  similar  to  the  one  just  described,  but  both  halves  are  com¬ 
pound,  each  being  made  up  of  two  pieces  once  held  together  by  an 
interior  stick  or  dowel.  Parts  of  a  main  binding  that  once  fastened 
the  two  halves  to  each  other  are  still  preserved.  The  lower  part  of 
the  left-hand  unit  has  on  one  side  three  deep  horizontal  notches 
and  a  single  small  round  hole;  the  upper  piece  has  three  double 
lines  of  incised  dots  which,  as  in  the  preceding  specimen,  only  run 
half  way  around.  The  right-hand  unit  has  two  similar  double 
lines  of  dots,  one  near  the  bottom,  one  just  below  the  top.  The 
upper  end  of  each  unit  is  plugged  with  pitch,  in  which  are  set 
the  curious  compound  objects  shown  in  the  drawing.  They  are 
flattened  spheres  of  red  stone  with  small,  white,  perforated  discs 
glued  to  their  tops.  The  right-hand  sphere  has  been  somewhat 
warped  from  its  original  flat  position  across  the  end  of  the  bone. 

The  pair  of  tubes  shown  in  f,  were  found  together  in  Sunflower 
Cave  and  illustrated  in  our  first  report  (plate  86,  f) ;  they  are  re¬ 
produced  here  because  they  are  surely  of  the  same  nature  as  the 
White  Dog  Cave  specimens.  They  fit  snugly  when  laid  side  by 
side  and  show,  indeed,  sigjns  of  rubbing  along  the  points  of  contact; 
hence  they  once  were  undoubtedly  bound  together.  Near  the 
upper  end  of  each  one,  and  running  only  half  way  around,1  is  an 

i  In  our  first  description  we  mistakenly  stated  that  the  dots  encircled  the  bones  (Kidder- 
Guernsey,  1919,  p.  189). 


Peabody  Museum  Papers 


Vol.  VIII,  No.  2,  Plate  44 


Cave  6 

a-d,  Skin  pouch  and  objects  found  with  it  in  woven  bag;  e-i,  Articles  from  within 
pouch.  (About  4/5.) 


✓ 


OF  NORTHEASTERN  ARIZONA 


105 


incised  line  and  a  row  of  dots.  If  pitch  was  ever  used  to  plug  up 
these  bones,  it  has  entirely  disappeared. 

Two  other  bone  objects  (g  and  h)  are  fragments  which  obviously 
formed  parts  of  pairs  identical  with  the  above.  They  are  of  the 
same  general  shape  and  size,  and  have  similar  rows  of  small  dots 
only  partially  encircling  them.  The  upper  one,  g,  is  the  best  pre¬ 
served  of  several  fragments  of  a  broken  specimen;  found  loose  in 
the  same  cist  with  it  were  four  compound  “  buttons  ”  very  like  the 
ones  glued  to  the  ends  of  the  pair  shown  in  d. 

To  sum  up:  these  objects  were  pairs  of  bones  tied  together  at 
the  middle ;  the  component  parts  of  each  pair  might  be  a  single 
bone,  or  might  be  made  of  two  bones  fastened  end  to  end.  All 
are  decorated  with  lines  of  dots,  and  many,  perhaps  all,  had  at  one 
place  or  another  small  drilled  holes.  Some  at  least  were  provided 
with  compound  “  buttons  ”  glued  to  their  ends.  The  fact  that  the 
incised  dots  never  completely  encircle  the  bones,  and  that  the  un¬ 
dotted  surface  of  each  bone  is  always  the  flatter  side,  seems  to 
indicate  that  these  assemblages  were  held  or  worn  against  some¬ 
thing  in  such  a  position  that  one  side  was  not  visible.  We  have 
only  one  hint  as  to  a  possible  use;  lying  close  against  the  central 
ligature  of  the  pair  figured  in  d,  and  apparently  engaged  by  it  (the 
specimen  is  badly  rotted)  was  a  cord  hung  with  nearly  a  hundred 
deer-hoofs.  The  latter  may  have  formed  a  rattle,  and  if  so,  the 
double  bones  might  perhaps  have  been  some  sort  of  handle  for  it. 

Included  here  because  they  were  found  in  the  same  cists  with 
some  of  the  pairs  just  described,  are  two  specimens  that  seem  to 
have  served  as  handles  for  what  we  suppose  to  have  been  cere¬ 
monial  wands.1  The  first  (plate  42,  a)  came  from  the  same  cist 
that  held  the  broken  paired  bones  above  described.  It  is  a  hollow 
bone,  5 1  inches  long,  the  lower  end  carefully  finished,  smoothed, 
and  decorated  with  eight  circular  cup-like  depressions  filled  flush 
with  black  gum.  At  the  upper  end  it  is  perforated  by  two  holes 
through  which  runs  a  narrow  thong  holding  a  number  of  other 
thongs;  the  ends  of  such  of  the  latter  as  are  not  broken  off  are 
knotted  about  the  remains  of  the  butts  of  small  feathers;  the  ends 
of  the  others  are  simply  knotted.  The  second  specimen,  b,  from 
the  same  cist  as  e  and  h,  plate  41,  is  a  plain  tube  with  a  single 
hole  at  one  end;  its  similarity  to  the  above  handle  is  obvious. 

1  Compare  the  bird-headed  wooden  handle  with  feathered  streamers,  plate  39. 


106 


BASKET-MAKER  CAVES 


Bone  Whistle.  The  specimen  illustrated  in  plate  42,  i,  was  found 
with  the  handle  last  mentioned,  one  of  the  complete  pairs  of  bones, 
and  one  fragmentary  one.  Its  length  is  inches.  The  lower  end 
is  tightly  closed  with  gum,  the  upper  is  unsealed.  The  single  rather 
large  opening  is  partly  covered  by  wrappings  of  sinew;  these  seem 
to  have  held  a  bit  of  reed  or  other  substance,  now  almost  rotted 
away. 

Bone  Tubes.  The  tubes  shown  in  c  and  d,  are  both  simple 
lengths  of  hollow  bones  with  carefully  cut  ends.  They  are  figured 
here  because  we  are  unable  to  assign  any  definite  utilitarian  func¬ 
tion  to  them. 

Compound  “Dice.”  The  extremely  well-made  little  objects 
shown  on  plate  43,  are  all  from  White  Dog  Cave.  Each  consists  of 
two  parts:  a  spherical  or  cylindrical  body  with  rounded  bottom 
and  flat  top;  and  a  cap,  which  is  a  thin  disc  (often  a  reused  bead 
with  the  perforation  plugged  with  pitch)  firmly  cemented  to  the 
flat  top  of  the  body.  The  variety  of  materials  used  in  their  manu¬ 
facture  will  be  brought  out  in  the  descriptions  which  follow. 

The  upper  and  lower  sides  of  the  largest  example  we  have  is 
shown, in  j,  k;  it  measures  f  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  The  body,  of 
highly  polished  lignite,  is  perforated  vertically,  but  the  hole  is 
carefully  plugged ;  about  the  lower  edge  there  runs  a  series  of  little 
cuts.  The  cap  is  a  fine  grained  red  slate  disc-bead,  the  perforation 
filled  with  pitch.  This  specimen,  the  only  one  in  the  lot  which  was 
found  singly,  came  from  Cist  52. 

One  of  a  set  of  four  from  Cist  22,  is  shown  in  h.  It  has  a  trans¬ 
lucent  quartz  body  and  a  cap  of  red  slate.  The  other  three  (not 
figured)  arc  of  lignite;  one  has  an  imperforated  white  bone  cap, 
the  caps  of  the  remaining  two  are  missing,  but  dried  cement  on  the 
flat  tops  of  the  bodies  proves  that  they  were  once  present. 

A  set  of  seven  was  found  in  a  small  buckskin  pouch  in  Cist  24. 
One  of  these,  i,  has  a  dark  brown  wooden  base  and  a  white  bone 
cap;  a  second,  f,  has  a  lignite  base  with  an  unusually  large  white 
limestone  cap;  the  one  shown  in  g,  has  a  lignite  base  and  a  light 
brown  stone  cap ;  b,  has  a  long  cylindrical  base  of  lignite  and  a  cap 
of  hard  light  green  stone  (not  turquoise);  the  fifth  (not  figured),  a 
lignite  base,  and  light  brown  stone  cap.  The  sixth,  d,  and  seventh 
are  of  a  very  peculiar  construction  which  was  not  suspected  until  one 
of  them  accidentally  split  in  halves.  It  proved  to  have  been  made 


OF  NORTHEASTERN  ARIZONA 


107 


by  rolling  up  a  tiny  pellet  of  gray  clay  mixed  with  grains  of  crushed 
azurite  and  malachite.  Around  this  pellet  was  added  a  thin  layer 
of  the  same  mixture,  then  another  and  another  like  the  coats  of  an 
onion,  until  the  requisite  size  and  shape  of  the  base  were  attained. 
The  whole  was  then  daubed  with  pure  gray  clay,  so  that  the  blue 
and  green  particles,  so  thickly  sown  through  the  whole  interior,  do 
not  show  on  the  surface.  The  cap  of  the  one  figured  is  a  flat  green 
stone,  that  of  the  split  specimen  is  of  red  slate;  both  are  about  the 
same  size. 

A  second  set  of  seven,  also  contained  in  a  buckskin  bag,  was 
taken  from  Cist  24.  These  are  not  figured.  Two  are  of  lignite  with 
unperforated  brown  stone  caps;  four  are  of  the  peculiar  azurite- 
malachite-clay  composition,  the  caps  of  two  are  missing.  Of  the 
two  in  place  one  is  a  perforated  brown  stone  disc,  the  other  an  un¬ 
perforated  disc  of  green  stone.  The  seventh  is  beautifully  shaped 
from  hematite,  it  lacks  the  cap,  but,  as  in  all  such  cases,  distinct 
traces  of  the  cement  that  once  held  it  in  place  remain. 

Two  of  another  set  of  seven  found  loose  in  Cist  27  are  also  illus¬ 
trated  in  plate  43.  The  one  shown  in  c,  is  a  hard,  light  green  stone 
with  a  cap  of  white  bone;  e,  is  of  serpentine  and  lacks  the  cap.  Of 
the  remaining  five,  one  is  sandstone  of  thin  cylindrical  form;  like  e, 
the  cap  is  missing;  the  other  three  have  green  stone  bases  with 
bone,  pink  stone,  and  red  stone  caps  respectively. 

The  purpose  of  these  pretty  and  beautifully  made  little  things 
is  unknown.  Two  of  them  were  found  glued  to  the  ends  of  bones 
(plates  41,  d,  and  43,  a),  and  the  set  of  four  above  described  came 
from  a  disturbed  cist  (6)  which  contained  fragments  of  similar 
paired  bones.  We  at  first  thought  that  all  such  “  buttons  ”  were 
meant  for  a  like  use,  but  on  careful  examination  we  could  find  no 
trace  of  pitch  or  other  adhesive  matter  clinging  to  any  of  them; 
furthermore  their  bottoms  are  always  excellently  finished  and 
show,  indeed,  more  polish  than  do  the  sides,  whereas  objects  pri¬ 
marily  designed  to  be  glued  or  cemented  to  other  objects,  are 
generally  roughened  on  those  parts  which  were  destined  to  receive 
the  adhesive  substance.  This,  and  the  fact  that  we  have  three 
separate  sets  of  exactly  seven  each,  has  inclined  us  to  believe  that 
they  were  some  form  of  dice  and  that  their  employment  as  an  em¬ 
bellishment  for  the  tips  of  the  peculiar  paired  bones  may  have  been 
a  secondary  one. 


108 


BASKET-MAKER  CAVES 


MEDICINE  POUCHES  OF  SKIN 

Under  this  heading  are  included  a  number  of  skin  bags  of  various 
shapes  and  sizes  which  were  found  with  burials.  They  contained 
assortments  of  miscellaneous  material,  much  of  it  of  no  apparent 
practical  value.1  As  to  whether  or  not  the  identification  of  these 
sacks  as  medicine  pouches  is  correct,  the  reader  may  judge  for 
himself. 

Bag  and  Contents.  The  container  figured  on  plate  38,  a,  is  made 
from  prairie-dog  skins  with  the  hair  on,  cut  and  fitted  to  form  a 
triangular  sack  11  inches  long,  10  inches  across  the  base,  and  3| 
inches  across  the  mouth.  The  skins  are  arranged  so  that  the  heads 


Figche  16 

Skin  bag  containing  beads  and  feathers,  White  Dog  Cave.  (}.) 


form  the  mouth  of  the  bag.  They  are  sewn  together  with  a  running 
stitch,  the  seam  inside,  the  hair  side  out.  Within  were  a  cake  of 
paint,  b,  and  a  very  small  skin  bag,  c,  wrapped  with  string  and 
holding  powdered  paint  of  a  brilliant  green  color.  The  cake  was 
made  of  the  same  paint,  apparently  moistened  and  molded  into 
its  present  shape  with  the  fingers. 

Bag  with  Colored  Minerals.  This  is  a  little  skin  container  in 
which  were  found  about  twenty  small  unworked  fragments  of 
azurite  and  malachite. 

Dice  Bags.  These  were  both  taken  from  Cist  24,  White  Dog 
Cave.  They  are  little  buckskin  bags;  each  contained  seven  of 
the  peculiar  compound  “  dice  ”  described  above. 

Sack  with  Beads  and  Feathers.  This  specimen  is  illustrated  in 
figure  16.  It  is  a  bag  of  what  appears  to  be  badger  skin  with  the 
hair  on,  which  is  somewhat  rotted  and  has  split  down  the  side.  In 

1  Similar  assortments  were  found  with  Sayodneechee  burials.  Kidder-Guernsey,  1919, 
p.  30. 


OF  NORTHEASTERN  ARIZONA 


109 


it  are  about  a  teacup  full  of  small  cylindrical  black  seed  beads ;  a 
few  discoidal  bone  beads;  and  six  large  flat  stone  beads,  two  of 
which  are  of  alabaster.  There  are  also  eleven  large  hawk  feathers 
and  a  section  7  inches  long  broken  from  the  stalk  of  a  plant  with 
a  pithy  stem. 

Pouch  and  Small  Articles.  This  heterogeneous  assemblage 
(plate  44)  was  found  in  the  woven  bag  shown  in  plate  30,  d,  taken 
from  Cave  6.  Some  of  the  objects  were  loose  in  the  woven  bag,  the 
remainder  were  contained  in  the  little  skin  pouch,  a,  of  the  former 
plate.  The  latter  is  made  from  a  piece  of  thin  animal  hide,  soft 
dressed  with  the  hair  on,  folded  to  form  a  small,  narrow  sack  5 
inches  long,  and  sewn  with  fiber  string.  After  having  been  sewn 
it  was  turned  to  bring  the  seam  inside.  A  buckskin  tie -string  is 
attached  to  the  top.  Only  traces  of  the  fur  remain. 

The  objects  found  loose  in  the  woven  bag  are:  a  fragment  of  a 
fossilized  mammalian  tooth,  b;  a  piece  of  hard  yellow  ochre  show¬ 
ing  rubbing  facets,  and  grooves  such  as  might  have  been  made  by 
coloring  a  cord,  and  in  spots,  a  curious  gloss,  c;  a  small  lump  of 
organic  substance  resembling  dried  fruit,  d;  and  half  of  a  squash 
seed,  f. 

In  the  little  skin  pouch  were :  a  part  of  the  horny  claw  cover  of 
an  animal,  presumably  dog  or  wolf,  i;  an  oval  bone  die,  g,  sim¬ 
ilar  to  those  figured  in  our  first  report,1  except  that  both  sides 
are  convex,  instead  of  one  being  convex  and  one  flat;  a  wooden 
die  of  bi-convex  shape  with  one  surface  coated  with  pitch  as  in 
the  1915  examples  just  referred  to,  h.  The  remaining  specimen 
from  the  pouch  is  a  section  2f  inches  long  cut  from  a  grease- 
wood  stick,  e.  The  ends  are  rounded  and  wrapped  with  sinew,  and 
a  groove  runs  the  whole  length  of  the  under  side,  the  entire  object 
having  been  painted  a  dull  red. 

SUMMARY  AND  CONCLUSIONS 

Summary  of  Material  Culture.  Of  the  dwellings  of  the  Basket- 
makers  we  know  next  to  nothing.  Certain  crudely-built  stone 
structures  in  Goat  Cave  (plate  2,  a,  b)  may  be  Basket-maker,  but 
the  evidence  is  not  conclusive.  In  Cave  14  were  found  cists  made 
of  large  slabs  and  closed  over  with  conical  wood  and  adobe  roofs; 

1  Kidder-Guernsey,  1919,  p.  189  and  plate  86,  g. 


110 


BASKET-MAKER  CAVES 


these  were  built  above  ground  and  against  the  cliff-wall  (plate  9, 
e,  f).  There  is  little  doubt  in  our  minds  that  they  are  Basket- 
maker  products,  and  they  have  a  distinctly  liouse-like  appearance; 
but  their  very  small  size  argues  for  their  use  as  storage  places  rather 
than  as  domiciles.  We  believe  at  present,  therefore,  that  the 
Basket-makers  lived  mostly  in  perishable  structures  built  in  the 
open,  and  only  resorted  to  the  caves  for  temporary  shelter  in  severe 
weather. 

Although  they  apparently  did  not  live  regularly  in  the  caves, 
they  took  full  advantage  of  them  for  the  storage  of  their  crops  and 
for  the  burial  of  their  dead.  For  both  purposes  they  used  cists. 
These  occur  in  several  well-defined  varieties  (see  plate  9) .  Where 
the  cave  floor  was  of  solid  hard-pan  they  excavated  plain,  jar- 
shaped  cavities  in  it;  some  of  these  have  little  tunnels  or  “  flues  ” 
leading  to  smaller,  shallower  holes  set  about  their  mouths.  When 
the  floor  of  the  cave  was  of  material  so  loose  as  to  render  the  above 
forms  unpractical,  they  scooped  out  holes,  larger  or  smaller  ac¬ 
cording  to  their  requirements,  and  lined  them  with  large,  flat, 
stone  slabs  to  hold  back  the  sand.  These  are  the  commonest  types, 
and  sdrved,  apparently,  either  for  storage  or  burial.  Semi-subterra¬ 
nean  (Cave  2,  1915),  or  above-ground  cists  (Cave  14)  with  slab 
foundations  and  adobe  superstructures  complete  the  list;  we  have 
so  far  not  found  burials  in  them. 

Burial  customs  were  very  uniform;  the  bodies  were  flexed, 
wrapped  in  fur-string  blankets  and  twined-woven  bags,  and  de¬ 
posited,  with  numerous  mortuary  offerings,  in  the  cists.  Inter¬ 
ments  were  almost  never  single;  in  most  cases  two  to  four  indi¬ 
viduals  were  buried  together. 

The  Basket-makers  grew  corn  of  a  single,  apparently  primitive, 
variety;  squashes  also  were  raised,  but  the  most  careful  search 
has  so  far  failed  to  reveal  any  evidence  of  bean  culture.  The 
turkey  was  probably  not  domesticated.  The  people  covered  them¬ 
selves  with  robes  of  fur  cloth  and  dressed  hides;  men  wore  a 
breech-cloth  and  “gee-string ” ;  the  women  a  short  string  skirt.  The 
usual  footgear  was  the  square-toed  sandal,  a  type  which  differs 
from  all  others  in  the  Southwest  in  shape,  in  the  presence  of  a  toe- 
fringe,  and  in  the  fact  that  the  Soles  of  the  better  specimens  are 
provided  with  a  looped  “  pile  ”  reinforcement  covering  their  entire 
length. 


OF  NORTHEASTERN  ARIZONA 


111 


Children  and  the  adults  of  both  sexes  were  well  supplied  with 
necklaces  of  stone  and  shell  beads,  as  well  as  with  pendants  of 
stone  and  abalone  shell;  turquoise,  apparently,  was  unknown. 
Hair-dressing  in  the  case  of  males  was  elaborate.  The  back  hair  was 
gathered  into  a  short  chubby  knot  to  which  was  fastened  a  thin 
braided  scalp-lock  falling  from  the  crown  of  the  head;  there  was 
often  a  wide  “  part”  and  a  tonsure  from  which  the  hair  was  clipped 
close.  Women  seem  to  have  worn  the  hair  short;  their  heads  may 
have  provided  the  great  quantity  of  human  hair  that  was  used 
for  string. 

Cradles  were  of  two  types:  the  rigid,  with  wooden  frame,  twig 
or  reed  backing,  and  padded  edge;  and  the  flexible,  made  of  grass 
or  cedar  bark.  Young  babies  were  always  provided  with  stuffed 
pads,  bound  to  the  navel  to  prevent  rupture. 

Basketry  was  very  abundant  indeed,  but  was  exclusively  of 
the  coiled  variety,  with  two-rod-and-bundle  foundation,  and  with 
wooden  sewing  splints.  The  weave  is  coarse,  but  even  and  very 
firm;  decoration  is  in  black  or  black-and-red;  the  designs  have  a 
sort  of  family  resemblance  to  those  of  the  modern  tribes  of  central 
and  northern  California.  The  principal  forms  are  trays,  bowls  and 
large  panniers.  No  wickerwork,  twined  or  checker-work  baskets 
were  found. 

Of  textile  fabrics,  these  people  turned  out  very  limited  amounts 
of  apocynum  string  cloth,  plain  over-and-under  weave.  It  was 
undoubtedly  woven  on  some  form  of  loom,  but  the  small  size  of 
the  individual  pieces  produced  and  the  crude  nature  of  the  selvages 
give  the  impression  that  the  art  of  loom  weaving  was  still  in  its 
infancy.  This  theory  is  strengthened  by  the  fact  that  the  designs 
were  either  painted  on  the  fabric  or  made  by  rubbing  color  onto 
the  wefts  as  they  were  being  woven,  rather  than  produced,  as  in 
more  perfected  systems,  by  the  use  of  separate  wefts  dyed  before 
insertion.  The  most  elaborate  textiles  are  the  hand-twined  bags, 
usually  made  of  apocynum  string,  and  decorated  by  painting  or  by 
rubbing  color  on  the  wefts  in  process.  The  abundance  of  such 
bags  is  very  striking.  Although  an  enormous  quantity  of  finely 
spun  string  was  employed  for  the  textiles  and  for  a  variety  of  other 
purposes  (such  as  in  rabbit-nets,  string  aprons,  fur  cloth,  etc.),  we 
have  never  found  any  trace  of  the  use  of  a  spindle,  either  plain  or 
whorled.  Fur  cloth  was  much  used,  true  feather-cloth  never. 


112 


BASKET-MAKER  CAVES 


Skin  was  well  dressed  and  entered  into  many  industries,  but 
most  strikingly  so  in  the  making  of  all  sorts  of  small  to  medium 
sized  bags  and  pouches,  the  most  characteristic  of  which  are  sacks 
formed  of  two  to  seven  or  eight  prairie-dog  hides  sewed  together 
in  such  a  way  that  the  heads  of  the  animals  arranged  side  by  side 
formed  the  necks  of  the  bags. 

The  Basket-makers  had  few  superiors  in  the  careful  working  of 
wood;  their  weapons  and  implements  show  as  fine  shapes  and  as 
perfect  finish  as  can  be  achieved  with  stone  tools.  The  most 
typical  objects  are  the  atlatl  and  dart  (used,  apparently,  to  the 
entire  exclusion  of  the  bow  and  arrow);  the  grooved  club;  and 
the  crooked  shafted,  plain-gripped  digging  stick. 

Artifacts  of  stone  are  very  poorly  represented  in  the  collection. 
There  are  no  specimens  of  the  following  types,  all  common  in  the 
cliff-houses  and  pueblos:  axes,  both  grooved  and  grooveless,  ham¬ 
mer  stones,  polishing  stones,  “  sandal  lasts,”  chipped  scrapers, 
arrowheads,  or  long  drills.  As  these  lacking  forms  are  all  strictly 
utilitarian  in  function,  their  absence  may  be  due  to  our  material 
being  almost  exclusively  from  graves  and  temporary  cave-shelters, 
rathe^  than  from  long  inhabited  dwelling  places.  It  would  not 
surprise  us,  however,  to  find  that  the  grooved  axe  was  unknown  to 
the  Basket-makers,  as  that  implement  among  the  northern  Cliff- 
dwellers  is  always  of  a  rude,  unspecialized  type  and  therefore 
presumably  of  late  introduction.  The  grooved  axe  is,  indeed,  en¬ 
tirely  absent  from  the  areas  to  the  west  and  northwest  of  the 
Pueblo  district. 

Of  such  stone  objects  as  do  occur,  the  most  characteristic  are  the 
heavy  discoidal  and  sub-spherical  beads,  the  short  squat  pipes  and 
the  large,  triangular,  tanged  dart-points.  The  chipping  of  the 
latter,  and  of  certain  large  flint  knife-blades,  is  very  skillfully 
done. 

Bone  tools,  like  those  of  stone,  are  not  common  in  our  collection; 
there  are  a  few  simple  awls,  a  few  beads,  some  whistles,  and  some 
pairs  of  decorated  tubes  which  we  have  classed  as  ceremonial. 
There  are  no  bone  scrapers.  The  rarity  of  awls,  among  the  re¬ 
mains  of  a  people  who  produced  as  much  coiled  basketry  as  did 
the  Basket-makers,  is  very  peculiar;  it  is  probably  due  to  the  fact 
that  we  have  not  yet  succeeded  in  finding  long-occupied  dwelling 
places. 


OF  NORTHEASTERN  ARIZONA 


113 


While  feathers  played  an  unimportant  part  in  the  making  of 
robes,  having  been  used  only  for  fringes  and  ornamental  borders, 
they  were  much  employed  in  the  making  of  all  sorts  of  ceremonial 
paraphernalia,  as  well  as  for  the  winging  of  atlatl  darts.  Bundles 
of  large  feathers,  destined  probably  for  the  latter  purpose,  were 
found  in  several  caves. 

True  pottery,  as  far  as  we  know,  was  not  made.  The  only  speci¬ 
mens  of  burned  clay  that  we  have  are  two  small  pipes  found  in 
1914-1915.  In  the  present  report  is  described  a  fragment  of  an 
unfired  dish  with  basket  marked  exterior;  this  may  represent  a 
very  primitive  form  of  pottery.  In  which  case  again  we  feel  the  lack 
of  material  from  village  sites,  as  it  is  possible  that  pottery  really 
did  exist  but  that  it  never,  for  some  reason,  found  its  way  into  the 
graves. 

As  to  pictographs,  we  only  know  that  the  painting  of  large 
square-shouldered  human  figures  on  the  walls  of  caves  was  a  typi¬ 
cal,  and  apparently  an  exclusive  Basket-maker  practice.  We  have 
never  been  able  to  identify  any  pecked  pictographs  as  of  Basket- 
maker  origin. 

Conclusions.  Before  entering  into  any  discussion  of  the  place  of 
the  Basket-makers  in  the  general  scheme  of  Southwestern  archae¬ 
ology,  it  must  first  be  demonstrated  that  their  culture  is  really  a 
distinct  one.  If  this  cannot  be  done,  if  the  so-called  Basket-maker 
remains  from  Grand  Gulch  and  the  Kayenta  region  are  to  be  con¬ 
sidered  as  only  a  specialized  local  phase  of  the  widespread  Pueblo- 
Cliff-dweller  civilization,  then  they  naturally  cease  to  have  any 
chronological  or  morphological  interest.  The  authors,  however, 
feel  sure  that  such  is  not  the  case;  a  summary  of  the  evidence 
follows. 

The  cliff-houses  and  pueblos  of  this  region  are  stone-built  dwell¬ 
ings  of  coursed  masonry,  laid  up  with  adobe  mortar ;  the  rooms  are 
rectangular.  Corn  of  several  varieties  was  cultivated,  as  well  as 
beans  and  cotton;  the  turkey  was  domesticated.  Of  the  minor 
arts,  the  most  important  was  pottery  making.  Equally  character¬ 
istic  are:  twilled  yucca  leaf  sandals,  twilled  rush  matting,  and 
twilled  ring-baskets,  cotton  loom  cloth,  turkey-feather  string,  and 
the  bow  and  arrow.  These  objects,  together  with  pottery,  make 
up  nine-tenths  of  any  collection  from  the  cliff-houses.  Turning  to 
the  graves,  we  find  that  Cliff-dweller  skulls  were  always  artificially 


114 


BASKET-MAKER  CAVES 


flattened  at  the  back,  and  that  the  bodies,  accompanied  by  gener¬ 
ous  offerings  of  pottery,  were  interred  in  individual  graves,  usually 
in  the  open. 

The  Basket -makers,  on  the  other  hand,  certainly  built  no  houses 
of  coursed  masonry;  they  may,  in  fact,  have  possessed  no  more 
permanent  dwellings  than  do  the  Navajo  of  today'.  Their  corn 
was  of  a  single,  rather  primitive,  variety;  they  were  ignorant, 
apparently,  of  beans  and  cotton,  nor  did  they  domesticate  the 
turkey.  They  made  no  pottery  worthy  of  the  name  (or  if  they  did, 
it  never  found  its  way  into  the  graves),  and  all  the  other  character¬ 
istic  Cliff-dweller  specimens  mentioned  above  are  conspicuous  by' 
their  absence.  They  are  replaced,  however,  by  such  equally 
characteristic  Basket-maker  products  as  the  square-toed  sandal, 
the  twined-woven  bag,  and  the  atlatl.  The  heads  of  the  Basket- 
makers  were  never  artificially  deformed.  The  graves,  instead  of 
being  in  the  open,  were  cists  excavated  in  the  hard-pan  or  the 
sandy  fill  of  caves,  and  from  two  or  three  to  ten  or  more  bodies  were 
placed  in  each  cist.  Mortuary  offerings  were  numerous  and  varied, 
but  the  one  invariable  gift  to  the  dead  was  coiled  basketry'. 

In  the  above  summaries  only  the  leading  traits  of  the  two  cul¬ 
tures  are  catalogued.  A  more  detailed  comparison  in  tabular  form 
has  been  published  elsewhere,1  but  enough  is  here  presented  to 
show  the  essential  differences  between  them,  particularly  when  it 
is  considered  that  all  finds  of  each  class  have  always  run  true  to 
form:  pottery',  for  example,  and  deformed  skulls  have  never  ap¬ 
peared  in  Basket-maker  graves;  the  rubbish  of  cliff-houses  has 
never  given  evidence  of  the  manufacture  of,  for  instance,  twined- 
woven  bags  or  the  atlatl. 

We  may'  now  take  up  the  question  of  age.  Here  again  we  are  on 
firm  ground.  The  Basket-makers  definitely'  antedated  the  Pueblo- 
Cliff-dweller  people.  This  was  stated  long  ago  by'  the  Wetherills 
and  McLloyd  and  Graham,2  and  was  proved  to  us  by  the  super¬ 
position  of  Cliff-dweller  remains  upon  Basket-maker  burials  in 
Sunflower  Cave.  Even  without  this  clear  stratigraphic  evidence, 
the  case  was  reasonably  certain,  for  in  several  of  the  other  sites 
investigated  we  found  cliff-house  pots  or  sherds  in  surface-sand 
overlying  Basket-maker  burials  but  never  in  the  graves  themselves. 
Furthermore,  during  the  1915  work  in  Sunflower  Cave  there  was 


Kidder-Guernsey,  1919,  p.  204. 


2  Pepper,  1902. 


OF  NORTHEASTERN  ARIZONA 


115 


taken  from  the  cliff-house  rubbish  a  square-toed  Basket-maker 
sandal.1 

We  have  proved,  to  our  own  satisfaction  at  least,  that  the 
Basket-makers  were  a  people  culturally  distinct  from  the  Cliff- 
dwellers;  and  also  that  they  antedated  the  latter.  At  this  point 
definite  knowledge  ceases;  and  to  the  very  important  questions  of 
the  origin  of  the  Basket-maker  culture,  and  of  its  relation  to  that 
of  the  Cliff-dwellers,  we  can  supply  only  conjectural  answers. 

As  to  origin,  it  may  be  said  that  several  traits,  such  as  corn 
growing  and  the  use  of  the  atlatl,  point  toward  Mexico.  The 
peculiar  curved,  grooved  hand-club,  and  the  method  of  hair¬ 
dressing  were  both  features  of  the  somewhat  Mexicanized  Maya 
culture  of  late  prehistoric  and  early  historic  times  in  Yucatan. 
Furthermore,  the  only  archaeological  finds  which  remind  one  of 
the  Basket-makers  have  come  from  the  Coahuila  caves  in  northern 
Mexico,  and  from  the  Tularosa  caves  in  southern  New  Mexico. 
The  latter  sites  he  roughly  half  way  between  the  Kayenta  region 
and  Coahuila.  Just  how  much  weight  should  be  attached  to  these 
bits  of  evidence  we  do  not  know,  but  it  seems  to  us  certain  that 
germs  of  the  culture  worked  northward  from  the  Mexican  high¬ 
lands  in  very  early  times. 

Although  the  question  of  their  origin  is  obscure,  we  know  at 
least  that  the  Basket-makers  were  living  in  the  lower  San  Juan 
country  prior  to  the  opening  of  the  Pueblo-Cliff-dweller  period. 
As  to  the  relations  of  the  cultures  two  hypotheses  suggest  them¬ 
selves:  first,  that  the  Basket-makers  were  a  distinct  people  who 
were  crowded  out  of  the  region  by  the  arrival  of  their  more  highly 
developed  successors;  second,  that  they  were  the  direct  ancestors 
of  the  latter. 

If  the  first  hypothesis  be  correct  we  need  not  postulate  any  great 
time  interval  between  the  two  cultures ;  as  one  came  in,  the  other 
was  destroyed  or  moved  away.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  we  believe 
that  the  one  developed  from  the  other,  we  must  be  prepared  to 
allow  a  very  considerable  time  for  the  transition,  for  there  are 
many  radical  differences  between  the  cultures;  and  we  have  so  far 

1  This  illustrates  an  important  principle  of  archaeological  evidence,  viz.:  Given  two  cul¬ 
tures,  A  and  B,  in  the  same  area;  if  A  objects  are  found  in  B  sites,  but  B  objects  never  in  A  sites, 
A  may  be  safely  considered  older  than  B.  The  sporadic  finding  of  Basket-maker  products  in 
cliff-houses  may  be  expected  in  the  future,  particularly  as  it  is  probable  that  the  frequent  spolia¬ 
tion  of  Basket-maker  burials  was  the  work  of  the  Cliff-dwellers. 


116 


BASKET-MAKER  CAVES 


sought  in  vain  for  any  trait  running  from  the  one  to  the  other 
through  an  unbroken  logical  and  surely  demonstrable  evolution. 
While  there  are  missing  links  in  every  such  chain,  it  is  possible  that 
in  this  case  some  of  them  may  yet  be  supplied  by  the  hitherto  little- 
known  “pre-pueblo”  or  “slab-house”  sites  that  archaeologists  are 
beginning  to  uncover  in  various  parts  of  the  Southwest.  xMl  such 
sites  hitherto  examined  have,  however,  been  found  in  the  open  and 
so  have  yielded  no  specimens  of  a  perishable  nature;  hence  they 
have  provided  us  with  no  evidence  as  to  basketry,  sandals,  food 
products  or  wood-working,  the  very  phases  of  material  culture 
with  which  we  are  most  familiar  in  the  case  of  the  Basket-makers 
and  which  we  therefore  most  need  for  comparative  and  develop¬ 
mental  studies.  A  rigorous  search  should  accordingly  be  made  for 
“  pre-pueblo  ”  habitations  and  graves  in  locations  where  they  may 
be  expected  to  be  found  protected  from  moisture.  If  such  are  dis¬ 
covered,  it  should  be  an  easy  matter,  in  view  of  our  accurate 
knowledge  of  both  the  Basket-makers  and  the  developed  Cliff- 
dwellers,  to  determine  definitely  whether  or  not  the  “  pre-pueblo  ” 
people  were  culturally  intermediate  between  them. 

To  return  to  the  first  hypothesis,  namely,  that  the  Basket- 
makers  were  crowded  out  of  the  region  by  the  Cliff-dwellers,  and 
settled  somewhere  along  its  edges.  We  have  examined  collections 
from  many  modern  southwestern  tribes  who  possess  cultures  of 
about  the  same  grade  as  that  of  the  Basket-makers,  in  the  hope 
that  we  might  find  some  evidence  of  their  descent  from  the  ancient 
people.  Nothing  definite  could,  however,  be  established,  although 
similarities  in  basketry,  rabbit-nets,  and  hair  ornaments  were 
noticed  in  the  Paiute  collections;  and,  among  the  Mohave  material, 
in  the  form  and  weave  of  twined  bags  and  in  the  practice  of  plug¬ 
ging  with  wood  the  quills  of  feathers.  Too  much  significance,  how¬ 
ever,  must  not  be  placed  upon  similarities  such  as  the  above,  for  the 
remarkable  state  of  preservation  of  the  Basket-maker  material 
makes  it  appear  so  much  like  a  collection  from  an  existing  tribe 
that  it  is  particularly  easy  to  fall  into  the  way  of  drawing  techno¬ 
logical  comparisons  between  it  and  modern  articles,  losing  sight 
of  the  fact  that  the  Basket-maker  products  are  really  of  great 
antiquity  and  that  the  Paiute,  Mohave,  and  other  collections  are 
things  of  yesterday.  Where  similarities  occur,  therefore,  their 
significance  as  showing  direct  connection  is  open  to  question;  the 


OF  NORTHEASTERN  ARIZONA 


117 


long  time  interval  has  permitted  the  working  of  too  many  as  yet 
unassayable  factors  of  culture-growth  and  transmission. 

It  may  seem  to  the  reader  that  we  have  been  unduly  cautious  in 
our  failure  to  draw  any  definite  conclusions.  The  work,  however, 
is  just  beginning,  and  it  is  our  desire  to  do  no  more  than  record  for 
other  students  the  evidence  so  far  accumulated,  and  to  present  the 
few  speculations  as  to  its  meaning  which  we  have  allowed  ourselves 
to  indulge  in. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


Allen,  Glover  M. 

1920.  Dogs  of  the  American  Aborigines.  Bulletin  of  the  Museum  of 
Comparative  Zoology  at  Harvard  College,  vol.  lxiii,  no.  9. 
Cambridge,  1920. 

Catlin,  George. 

1842.  Letters  and  Notes  on  the  Manners,  Customs  and  Condition  of  the 
North  American  Indians.  New  York,  1842. 

Cummings,  Byron. 

1910.  The  Ancient  Inhabitants  of  the  San  Juan  Valley.  Bulletin  of  the 
University  of  Utah,  2nd  Archaeological  number,  vol.  3,  pt.  2. 
Salt  Lake  City,  1910. 

Cushing,  Frank  Hamilton. 

1886.  A  Study  of  Pueblo  Pottery  as  Illustrative  of  Zuhi  Culture  Growth. 
Fourth  Report  of  the  Bureau  of  Ethnology,  pp.  467-521.  Wash¬ 
ington,  1886. 

1895.  The  Arrow.  American  Anthropologist,  vol.  viii,  no.  4,  pp.  307- 
349.  Washington,  1895. 

Gregory,  Herbert  E. 

1916.  The  Navajo  Country.  United  States  Geological  Survey,  Water- 
supply  Paper,  no.  380.  Washington,  1916. 

Heye,  George  H. 

1919.  Certain  Aboriginal  Pottery  from  Southern  California.  Indian 
Notes  and  Monographs;  Museum  of  the  American  Indian,  Heye 
Foundation,  vol.  vii,  no.  1.  New  York,  1919. 

Hoffman,  Walter  James. 

1896.  The  Menomini  Indians.  Fourteenth  Report  of  the  Bureau  of 
American  Ethnology,  pp.  1-328.  Washington,  1896. 

Holmes,  W.  H. 

1919.  Handbook  of  Aboriginal  American  Antiquities.  Part  I,  Intro¬ 
ductory.  The  Lithic  Industries.  Bulletin  60,  Bureau  of  American 
Ethnology.  Washington,  1919. 

Hooton,  E.  A.  and  Willoughby,  C.  C. 

1920.  Indian  Village  Site  and  Cemetery  near  Madisonville,  Ohio.  Papers 
of  the  Peabody  Museum  of  American  Archaeology  and  Ethnol¬ 
ogy,  Harvard  University,  vol.  viii,  no.  1.  Cambridge,  1920. 


119 


120 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


Hough,  Walter. 

1914.  Culture  of  the  Ancient  Pueblos  of  the  Upper  Gila  River  Region, 
New  Mexico  and  Arizona.  Bulletin  87,  U.  S.  National  Museum. 
Washington,  1914. 

1919.  The  Hopi  Indian  Collections  in  the  United  States  National  Mu¬ 
seum.  Proceedings  of  the  U.  S.  National  Museum,  vol.  54,  pp. 
235-296.  Washington,  1919. 

Kidder,  A.  V.  and  Guernsey,  S.  J. 

1919.  Archaeological  Explorations  in  Northeastern  Arizona.  Bulletin  65, 
Bureau  of  American  Ethnology.  Washington,  1919. 

Kroeber,  A.  L. 

1908.  Ethnology  of  the  Gros  Ventre.  Anthropological  Papers  of  the 
American  Museum  of  Natural  History,  vol.  i,  pt.  4.  New  York, 
1908. 

Lumholtz,  Carl. 

1903.  Unknown  Mexico.  London,  1903. 

Mason,  Otis  Tufton. 

1904.  Aboriginal  American  Basketry,  Studies  in  a  Textile  Art  without 
Machinery.  Annual  Report  of  the  U.  S.  National  Museum  for 
1902,  pp.  171-548.  Washington,  1904. 

Morris,  Earl  II. 

1919.  The  Aztec  Ruin.  Anthropological  Papers  of  the  American  Mu¬ 
seum  of  Natural  History,  vol.  xxvi,  pt.  1.  New  York,  1919. 

1919,  a.  Preliminary  Account  of  the  Antiquities  of  the  Region  between  the 
Mancos  and  La  Plata  Rivers  in  Southwestern  Colorado.  Thirty- 
third  Report  of  the  Bureau  of  American  Ethnology,  pp.  155-206. 
Washington,  1919. 

Nordenskiold,  Gustav. 

1S93.  The  Cliff-Dwellers  of  the  Mesa  Verde.  Translated  by  D.  Lloyd 
Morgan.  Stockholm,  1893. 

Parsons,  Elsie  Clews. 

1918.  War  God  Shrines  of  Laguna  and  Zuni.  American  Anthropologist, 
n.  s.  vol.  20,  no.  4,  pp.  381-405.  Lancaster,  Pa.,  1918. 

Pepper,  George  H. 

1902.  The  Ancient  Basket  Makers  of  Southeastern  Utah.  American 
Museum  Journal,  vol.  ii,  no.  4,  suppl.  New  York,  1902. 

1905.  The  Throwing  Stick  of  a  Prehistoric  People  of  the  Southwest. 
International  Congress  of  Americanists,  13th  Session,  New  York, 
1902,  pp.  107-130.  Easton,  Pa.,  1905. 

Pope,  Saxton  T. 

1918.  Yah  i  Archery.  University  of  California  Publications  in  American 
Archaeology  and  Ethnology,  vol.  13,  no.  3.  Berkeley,  1918. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


121 


Powell,  J.  W. 

1875.  Exploration  of  the  Colorado  River  of  the  West  and  its  Tributaries. 
Explored  in  1869,  1870,  1871,  and  1872.  Washington,  1875. 

Prudden,  T.  Mitchell. 

1897.  An  Elder  Brother  to  the  Cliff-Dweller.  Harper’s  Monthly  Magazine 
for  June,  1897,  pp.  56-63.  New  York,  1897. 

19C3.  The  Prehistoric  Ruins  of  the  San  Juan  Watershed  in  Utah,  Arizona, 
Colorado,  and  New  Mexico.  American  Anthropologist,  n.s.,  vol. 
5,  no.  2,  pp.  224-288.  Lancaster,  Pa.,  1903. 

1907.  On  the  Great  American  Plateau.  New  York,  1907. 

Rau,  Charles. 

1876.  The  Archaeological  Collection  of  the  U.  S.  National  Museum. 
Smithsonian  Contributions  to  Knowledge,  no.  287.  vol.  xxii, 
Washington,  1876. 

Saunders,  Charles  Francis. 

1912.  The  Indians  of  the  Terraced  Houses.  New  York,  1912. 
ScHELLHAS,  PAUL. 

1904.  Comparative  Studies  in  the  Field  of  Maya  Antiquities.  Bulletin 
28,  Bureau  of  American  Ethnology.  Washington,  1904. 

Waterman,  T.  T. 

1918.  The  Yana  Indians.  University  of  California  Publications  in 
American  Archaeology  and  Ethnology,  vol.  xiii,  no.  2.  Berkeley, 
1918. 


PRINTED  AT 

THE  HARVARD  UNIVERSITY  PRES3 
CAMBRIDGE,  MASS.,  U.  S.  A. 


PAPERS 


OF  THE 

PEABODY  MUSEUM  OF  AMERICAN  ARCHAEOLOGY 
AND  ETHNOLOGY,  HARVARD  UNIVERSITY 

Vol.VIIL  —  No.  3 


THE 

TURNER  GROUP  OF  EARTHWORKS 
HAMILTON  COUNTY,  OHIO 

BY 

CHARLES  C.  WILLOUGHBY 

WITH  NOTES  ON  THE  SKELETAL  REMAINS  BY 

EARNEST  A.  HOOTON 


twenty-seven  plates  and  forty-seven  illustrations 
IN  THE  TEXT 


CAMBRIDGE,  MASSACHUSETTS,  U.  S.  A. 
PUBLISHED  BY  THE  MUSEUM 
1922 


PAPERS 


OF  THE 

PEABODY  MUSEUM  OF  AMERICAN  ARCHAEOLOGY 
AND  ETHNOLOGY,  HARVARD  UNIVERSITY 

Vol.  VIII.  — No.  3 


THE 

TURNER  GROUP  OF  EARTHWORKS 
HAMILTON  COUNTY,  OHIO 


BY 

CHARLES  C.  WILLOUGHBY 

WITH  NOTES  ON  THE  SKELETAL  REMAINS  BY 

EARNEST  A.  HOOTON 


TWENTY-SEVEN  PLATES  AND  FORTY-SEVEN  ILLUSTRATIONS 
IN  THE  TEXT 


CAMBRIDGE,  MASSACHUSETTS,  U.  S.  A. 
PUBLISHED  BY  THE  MUSEUM 
1922 


COPYRIGHT,  1922 

BY  THE  PEABODY  MUSEUM  OF  AMERICAN  ARCHAEOLOGY 
AND  ETHNOLOGY,  HARVARD  UNIVERSITY 


TO  THE  MEMORY  OF 


FREDERICK  WARD  PUTNAM 

1839-1915 

PIONEER  OF  SYSTEMATIC  MOUND  EXPLORATION 
IN  OHIO,  UNDER  WHOSE  DIRECTION  THE  WORK 
DESCRIBED  IN  THIS  PAPER  WAS  CONDUCTED 


NOTE 


In  1882,  Mr.  Michael  Turner,  on  whose  estate  the  group 
of  earthworks  described  in  the  following  paper  was  situated, 
gave  the  Peabody  Museum  of  Harvard  University  the  ex¬ 
clusive  right  of  exploration.  Previous  to  this  date,  the  larger 
of  the  two  tumuli  within  the  elevated  circle  was  known 
locally  as  the  Whittlesey  mound,  in  honor  of  the  archae¬ 
ologist  who  briefly  described  a  portion  of  these  remains  in 
a  paper  published  in  1850.  Professor  Putnam  made  arrange¬ 
ments  with  Dr.  Charles  L.  Metz  of  Madisonville,  to  carry 
on  the  exploration,  which  was  begun  in  May,  1882,  and 
was  continued  as  funds  and  time  would  permit,  until  the 
autumn  of  1891.  Little  was  done  subsequent  to  this  date. 
Mr.  Volk  explored  several  graves  in  1905,  and  final  work 
on  mound  15  was  completed  in  1908.  In  the  third  volume  of 
the  Reports  of  the  Peabody  Museum,  Professor  Putnam  has 
given  brief  notices  of  the  investigations  as  they  progressed, 
and  has  also  called  attention  to  some  of  the  more  important 
discoveries. 

Cambridge,  Massachusetts 
March  1,  1922 


/ 


CONTENTS 


THE  WORKS  IN  GENERAL 

PAGE 

Neighboring  Groups .  1 

General  Description  of  the  Turner  Group .  2 

Embankment  of  the  Great  Enclosure .  6 

Elevated  Circle .  13 

Burial  Places  Within  the  Great  Enclosure 

General  Description .  14 

Graves  Excavated  by  F.  W.  Putnam,  1886  .  15 

Graves  Excavated  by  C.  L.  Metz,  1886  .  20 

Graves  Excavated  by  M.  H.  Saville,  1889-90  .  21 

Graves  Excavated  by  E.  Volk,  1905  .  25 

The  Mounds  and  Their  Contents 

Mound  1 .  28 

Mound  2 .  32 

Mound  3 .  33 

Mound  4 .  62 

Mound  5 .  74 

Mound  6 .  75 

Mound  7  ....  . .  77 

Mound  8 .  78 

Mound  9 .  79 

Mound  10 .  80 

Mound  11 .  80 

Mound  12 .  80 

Mound  13 .  85 

Mound  14 .  85 

Mound  15 .  86 

Mounds  West  of  the  Elevated  Circle .  87 

Artifacts  in  General 

Stone  Implements .  88 

Textile  Fabrics .  89 

Pottery .  90 

Conclusion 


vii 


General  Summary 


95 


CONTEXTS 


viii 

THE  SKELETAL  REMAINS 

Collection  in  General .  99 

Cranial  Deformation . 101 

Cranial  Vault,  Measurements  and  Indices . 102 

Cranial  Arcs  and  Circumferences . 104 

Cranial  Capacity . 104 

Thickness  of  Left  Parietal  above  Temporo-parietal  Suture  ....  105 

Minimum  Frontal  Diameter . 105 

Facial,  Nasal,  and  Orbital  Measurements  and  Indices . 105 

External  Palatal  Index  (Maxillo-alveolar) . 106 

Alveolar  Index  (Gnathic  Index) . 107 

Lower  Jaw . 107 

Frontal  Region . 107 

Sagittal  Region . 108 

Temporal  Region . 110 

Occipital  Region . 110 

Sutures . Ill 

Parietal  Foramina  . 113 

Mastoids  . 113 

Supraorbital  Ridges . 114 

Facial  Region  . 114 

Teeth  • . 118 

Palate .  120 

Skull  Base . 120 

Mandible . 121 

Miscellaneous  and  Pathological . 124 

Bones  in  General . 125 

Femur . 125 

Tibia . 128 

Other  Long  Bones . 129 

Vertebrae . 129 

Pelvis . 129 

Summary . 130 


THE  TURNER  GROUP  OF  EARTHWORKS 
HAMILTON  COUNTY,  OHIO 


THE  WORKS  IN  GENERAL 

Neighboring  Groups.  The  Turner  Group  of  Earthworks  is 
situated  in  Anderson  Township,  Hamilton  County,  Ohio,  upon 
the  left  bank  of  the  Little  Miami  River,  about  eight  miles  from 
its  junction  with  the  Ohio  River.  The  valley  of  the  Little  Miami 
is  one  of  the  richest  archaeological  fields  in  the  state.  Mounds 
and  other  earthworks  dot  its  surface.  Within  a  comparatively 
short  distance  from  the  Turner  Group  are  numerous  mounds  and 
small  enclosures,  which  apparently  have  no  direct  connection 
with  this  group. 

Some  two  or  three  miles  to  the  northeast  are  the  extensive 
Milford  Works,  comprising  parallel  embankments  and  enclosures 
of  varying  forms,  together  with  a  number  of  mounds.  A  mile  or 
two  to  the  north,  across  the  Little  Miami  River,  lie  the  Camden 
Works,  consisting  of  a  square  and  circular  enclosure  with  connect¬ 
ing  embankments.  Several  mounds  belong  to  this  group.  The 
Milford  and  Camden  Works  were  surveyed  many  years  ago  by 
General  Lytle  of  Cincinnati.  The  plans  were  reproduced  by 
Squier  and  Davis,  who  describe  them  briefly.1  A  few  less  impor¬ 
tant  detached  works,  in  the  form  of  circles,  parallelograms,  and 
parallel  embankments,  lie  not  far  distant. 

Superficially,  there  is  little  resemblance  between  the  Turner, 
Milford,  and  Camden  Works.  It  is  probable,  however,  that  the 
purpose  served  was  the  same.  In  each  of  these  neighboring 
groups,  a  lesser  enclosure  of  circular  form  is  connected  with  a 
greater  enclosure  by  parallel  embankments.  In  two  instances,  the 
lesser  enclosure  is  situated  upon  an  elevated  terrace  as  though 
for  additional  security.  It  is  probable  that  the  larger  enclosure 
contained  the  habitations  and  certain  ceremonial  buildings.  The 

1  E.  G.  Squier  and  E.  H.  Davis,  Ancient  Monuments  of  the  Mississippi  Valley ,  Smithsonian 
Contributions  to  Knowledge,  Vol.  I,  plate  xxxiv,  Nos.  1  and  2a. 


1 


2 


TURNER  GROUP  OF  EARTHWORKS 


smaller  enclosure  may  have  been  for  defensive  purposes,  or  per¬ 
haps  was  the  site  of  the  council  house  or  principal  public  structure. 

General  Description  of  the  Turner  Group.  The  first  account  of 
these  works  is  by  T.  C.  Day  in  an  article  entitled  The  Antiquities 
of  the  Miami  Valley ,  published  in  the  Monthly  Chronicle  for  No¬ 
vember,  1839.  This  description  refers  principally  to  the  elevated 
circle  and  graded  way,  and  is  quoted  by  Dr.  Metz  in  his  Prehis¬ 
toric  Monuments  of  the  Little  Miami  Valley:1 

It  is  situated  on  a  ridge  of  land  that  juts  out  from  the  third  bottom  of  the 
Little  Miami.  .  .  .  Its  probable  height  is  40  feet,  and  its  length  about  a 
quarter  of  a  mile  before  it  expands  out  and  forms  the  third  alluvial  bottom. 
About  150  yards  from  the  extreme  point  of  this  ridge,  the  ancient  workmen 
have  cut  a  ditch  directly  through  it.  It  is  30  feet  in  depth,  its  length,  a  semi¬ 
circular  curve,  is  500  feet,  and  its  width  at  the  top  is  80  feet,  having  a  level 
base  of  40  feet. 

At  the  time  of  its  formation,  it  was  probably  cut  to  the  base  of  the  ridge, 
but  the  washing  of  the  rains  has  filled  it  up  to  its  present  height.  Forty  feet 
from  the  western  [northern]  side  of  the  ditch  is  placed  the  low  circular  wall  of 
the  fort,  which  describes  in  its  circumference  an  area  of  about  4  acres.  The 
wall  is  probably  3  feet  in  mean  height,  and  is  composed  of  the  usual  brick 
clay,  occasionally  intermixed  with  small  flat  river  stones.  It  keeps  at  an  exact 
distance  from  the  top  of  the  ditch,  but  approaches  nearer  to  the  edge  of  the 
ridge.  The  form  of  the  fort  is  a  perfect  circle,  and  is  200  yards  in  diameter. 
Its  western  [northern]  side  is  defended  with  a  ditch,  cut  through  the  ridge  in 
the  same  manner  as  the  one  on  the  eastern  [southern]  side.  Its  width  and 
depth  are  the  same,  but  its  length  is  greater  by  200  feet,  as  the  ridge  is  that 
much  wider  than  where  the  other  is  cut  through.  The  wall  of  the  fort  keeps 
exactly  the  same  distance  from  the  top  of  this  ditch  as  of  the  other,  viz.,  40 
feet.  Its  curve  is  exactly  the  opposite  of  that  of  the  other,  so  as  to  form  two 
segments  of  a  circle.  At  the  southeastern  side  of  the  fort  there  is  an  opening 
in  the  wall  36  yards  wide;  and  opposite  this  opening  is  one  of  the  most  marked 
features  of  this  wonderful  monument.  A  causeway  extends  out  from  the 
ridge  about  300  feet  in  length,  and  100  feet  in  width,  with  a  gradual  descent 
to  the  alluvial  bottom  at  its  base. 

The  material  of  its  construction  is  evidently  a  portion  of  the  earth  exca¬ 
vated  from  the  ditches.  Its  easy  ascent  and  breadth  would  induce  the  belief 
that  it  was  formed  to  facilitate  the  entrance  of  some  ponderous  vehicle  or 
machines  into  the  fort.  To  defend  this  entrance  they  raised  a  mound  of  earth 
7  feet  high,  40  wide,  and  75  long.  It  is  placed  about  100  feet  from  the  mouth 
of  the  causeway,  and  is  so  situated  that  its  garrison  could  sweep  it  to  its  base. 
The  whole  area  of  the  fort,  the  wall,  and  causeway  are  covered  with  large 
forest  trees,  but  there  is  not  a  tree  growing  in  either  of  the  ditches,  and  there 
are  but  a  few  low  underbrush  on  their  side. 


1  Journal  of  the  Cincinnati  Society  of  Natural  History,  Vol.  I,  No.3,  1878. 


HAMILTON  COUNTY,  OHIO 


3 


The  next  account  is  by  Charles  Whittlesey  and  was  published 
by  the  Smithsonian  Institution  in  1850.  It  includes  a  description 
of  the  elevated  circle,  the  graded  way,  a  portion  of  the  great  en¬ 
closure,  and  some  of  the  mounds.  At  that  time  the  elevated 
circle  and  graded  way  were  covered  with  a  mixed  growth  of  hard 
wood.  This  is  said  to  have  been  removed  in  1856.  The  lumber 
was  cut  from  portions  of  the  great  enclosure  about  1816,  and  the 
ground  first  plowed  by  Benjamin  Marriott  in  1825. 1  At  the  time 
of  Whittlesey’s  brief  survey,  the  mounds  and  embankments  of 
the  great  enclosure  had  probably  been  reduced  somewhat  by  cul¬ 
tivation,  but  the  elevated  circle  and  graded  way  had  not  been 
plowed.  The  following  account  by  Whittlesey,  together  with  his 
plan  (figure  l),  is  reproduced  through  the  courtesy  of  the  Smith¬ 
sonian  Institution : 2 

Among  the  curious  structures  of  the  mound-builders,  there  are  none  more 
difficult  to  explain  than  this.  On  a  detached  ridge,  composed  of  limestone 
gravel,  covered  with  a  clay  loam,  is  a  low  wall,  averaging  2  feet  high,  and  15 
feet  broad,  nearly  in  the  form  of  a  circle;  although  its  north  and  south  diameter 
is  about  25  feet  the  longer.  The  average  diameter  of  the  circle  is  470  feet. 
The  flat  ridge  on  which  figure  A  is  situated,  is  about  25  feet  higher  than  the 
adjacent  plain,  which  is  from  25  to  35  feet  above  the  Little  Miami  River. 
Outside  of  the  circular  figure,  there  is  a  space  from  20  to  30  feet  wide,  on  the 
natural  surface  of  the  ground.  On  the  two  opposite  sides  of  the  circle,  where 
it  occupies  the  height  of  the  ridge,  is  an  external  ditch,  or  excavation,  enclosing 
about  half  the  figure.  It  is  from  70  to  85  feet  broad  at  the  top,  and  from  12 
to  18  feet  deep.  The  bottom  of  this  trench  is  not  smooth,  and  is  from  7  to  10 
feet  higher  than  the  adjacent  plain.  Its  sides  are  as  steep  as  the  gravel  and 
earth  will  lie.  On  the  east,  in  the  direction  c,  g,  is  an  embankment  or  grade, 
extending  by  a  gradual  slope,  from  the  enclosure  A  to  the  plain.  It  is  168 
feet  wide  at  the  neck,  where  it  joins  A,  and  has,  at  the  edges,  raised  side-walls, 
like  those  made  for  pavements  in  cities,  with  a  drain  or  gutter  inside.  The 
space  between  the  side-ways  is  rounded  like  a  turnpike,  as  represented  in  the 
section  d,  e.  Its  length  is  600  feet,  and  the  side-ways  are  connected  with  a 
low  and  now  almost  obliterated  wall,  turning  outwards  each  way  at  i,  i.  Some 
distance  to  the  northeast  is  another  traceable  fragment,  f,  f;  and  this  may, 
with  i,  i,  have  been  portions  of  a  large  ellipse,  now  destroyed  by  time  and 
cultivation. 

The  earth  from  the  outside  ditches  of  A  was  used  to  form  the  embankment 
c,  g,  through  which  a  rivulet  has  cut  its  way  near  the  eastern  extremity.  The 
small  circle  at  c  represents  a  mound  8  feet  high,  a  little  out  of  the  center  of 

1  F.  W.  Putnam,  Manuscript  Notes. 

2  Charles  Whittlesey,  Descriptions  of  Ancient  Works  in  Ohio,  Smithsonian  Contributions  to 
Knowledge,  Vol.  Ill,  No.  7,  pp.  9  and  10. 


4 


TURNER  GROUP  OF  EARTHWORKS 


the  work.  The  group  of  mounds,  m.  m,  m,  are  from  2  to  14  feet  in  height. 
B  is  a  circle,  with  a  slight  inside  ditch,  and  a  broad  opening  for  an  entrance. 

The  section,  a,  b,  gives  the  position  of  the  ditch,  n,  the  bank,  o,  and  the 
space  of  30  feet  between  them,  called  a  berme. 

There  are  some  examples  of  graded  ways  among  the  ancient  works  of  Ohio, 
but  none  resembling  this.  The  grade  at  Marietta  leads  from  a  strong  work 


down  to  the  Muskingum  River,  and  had  an  evident  purpose,  that  of  access 
to  water.  It  is  principally  an  excavation  and  not  an  embankment.  There  is 
also  a  grade,  partly  in  excavation  and  partly  in  bank,  from  a  portion  of  the 
Newark  Works  in  Licking  County,  leading  to  a  branch  of  Licking  or  Pataskala 
River. 

The  great  excavated  road  at  Piketown,  likewise  descended  to  water.  But 
here,  a  grade  that  might  with  as  little  labor  have  been  constructed  in  a  direct 
line  to  the  Miami  River,  is  made  in  the  opposite  direction,  away  from  water. 
I  should  judge  that  the  rivulet  was  not  a  permanent  stream,  and  therefore 


HAMILTON  COUNTY,  OHIO 


5 


could  not  furnish  a  constant  supply  of  water.  Besides,  the  graded  way  in¬ 
stead  of  terminating  at  this  rivulet,  crosses  it,  and  probably  by  an  ancient 
culvert  or  sluice,  allowed  the  water  to  pass  under  the  road. 

Without  taking  such  measurements  as  would  be  sufficient  to  estimate  the 
contents  of  the  ditch  in  cubic  yards,  it  appeared  to  be  about  equal  to  the  em¬ 
bankment  in  capacity.  The  section  a,  b,  gives  its  form,  and  the  position  of 
the  low  interior  wall. 

It  is  not  improbable  that  there  may  have  been  outworks  connected  with 
this  remarkable  group  that  were  not  seen,  or  which  have  been  destroyed  by 
the  plough. 

The  plan  of  the  group  shown  in  plate  1,  is  adapted  from  the  sur¬ 
vey  by  D.  S.  and  J.  A.  Hosbrook  of  Cincinnati,  made  for  the  Pea¬ 
body  Museum  in  1887.  Cultivation  for  thirty-seven  years  since 
Whittlesey’s  plan  was  prepared  has  probably  still  further  reduced 
the  mounds  and  embankments. 

The  principal  earthworks  consist  of  a  great  oval  enclosure 
situated  on  the  second  terrace  of  the  Little  Miami  River,  about 
1000  feet  from  the  river’s  edge.  This  enclosure  is  about  1500  feet 
long  (nearly  a  third  of  a  mile),  and  approximately  950  feet  wide. 
At  the  northeastern  end  of  the  oval  is  an  opening  or  gateway.  At 
the  southwestern  end  is  a  second  opening  which  connects  with  a 
graded  way  about  600  feet  long,  leading  to  an  elevated  circle  upon 
a  portion  of  the  first  or  upper  terrace,  which  had  been  detached 
from  the  main  part  of  the  elevation  by  two  deep  trenches,  one 
upon  either  side.  This  elevated  circle  is  about  30  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  great  enclosure. 

Within  these  two  connected  enclosures  are  two  small  earth 
circles  with  inner  trenches,  and  fourteen  mounds,  occupying  the 
positions  illustrated  in  the  plan  and  model,  plate  1  and  figure  2. 

Eight  hundred  feet  south  from  the  elevated  circle  is  the  entrance 
to  the  long  enclosure  with  low  parallel  embankments  and  rounded 
ends.  This  is  nearly  one-half  mile  in  length  and  about  250  feet 
in  width.  This  is  probably  analogous  to  the  chunkey  yard  of  the 
Creeks,  where  games  were  played  and  prisoners  exhibited. 

To  the  west  of  the  elevated  circle  are  four  mounds  upon  the 
second  terrace,  regularly  arranged  in  relation  to  the  circle.  To  the 
north  of  the  great  enclosure  and  upon  the  third  terrace  at  the  river’s 
edge  is  what  is  left  of  a  stone-covered  mound  which  has  been  par¬ 
tially  carried  away  by  river  floods.  Upon  portions  of  the  first 
terrace  to  the  southward  are  several  other  mounds,  not  shown  in 


6 


TURNER  GROUP  OF  EARTHWORKS 


the  plan,  which  probably  bear  no  direct  relation  to  the  group  under 
consideration . 

The  Embankment  of  the  Great  Enclosure.  The  embankment 
forming  the  great  enclosure  could  be  traced  practically  throughout 
its  entire  length.  Beginning  at  the  foot  of  the  graded  way,  about 
one-half  of  the  northwestern  section  was  well  defined  except  in 
one  place,  the  average  height  being  about  2  feet  and  the  width 
approximately  20  feet.  Beyond  this,  for  a  space  of  about  500  feet, 
the  embankment  was  just  perceptible;  the  remaining  portion,  ex- 


Figure  2 

Model  of  the  Turner  Group,  looking  northwest. 


tending  to  the  northeastern  gateway,  was  about  1  foot  high  and 
25  feet  wide. 

The  southeastern  half  of  the  embankment  was  nearly  obliterated 
except  near  the  western  end,  where  it  rose  to  a  height  of  about 
three  feet,  but  its  outline  could  be  traced  for  practically  its  entire 
length  by  the  dark  color  of  the  soil. 

Like  numerous  other  similar  embankments  in  southern  Ohio 
there  seems  to  have  been  no  accompanying  trench  upon  either 
side.  The  embankment  was  low,  and  while  it  may  have  been 
somewhat  reduced  by  cultivation,  it  probably  never  was  much 
higher  than  when  first  noted  by  Whittlesey.  Hoping  to  throw  some 
light  upon  its  origin,  it  was  decided  to  carry  trenches  through  it  at 
certain  points. 

Trench  A.  Just  north  of  the  southwestern  opening  at  the  foot 
of  the  graded  way,  a  portion  of  the  embankment  was  removed, 
in  1880,  by  digging  a  trench  100  feet  long  and  50  feet  wide,  at  a, 


Peabody  Museum  Papees 


Vol.  VIII,  No.  3,  Plate  1 


Plan  of  the  Turner  Group  of  Earthworks  from  the  survey  by  D.  S.  and  J.  A.  Hosbrook, 
made  for  the  Peabody  Museum  in  1887. 


HAMILTON  COUNTY,  OHIO 


7 


plate  1.  Mr.  M.  A.  Saville  had  charge  of  this  work  for  the  Mu¬ 
seum.  The  trench  was  carried  into  the  hard-pan,  which  lay  at  an 
average  depth  of  2|  feet  below  the  surface.  Its  sides  extended 
somewhat  beyond  the  edges  of  the  embankment. 

Within  this  excavation  were  found  thirty-seven  post-holes, 
several  small  ash-beds  and  pits,  six  altars,  and  a  large  hearth  of 
flat  limestones.  Their  distribution  is  shown  in  figure  3. 


Figure  3 

Plan  of  Trench  a,  embankment  of  the  Great  Enclosure. 


The  post-holes  were  3  to  12  inches  in  diameter.  The  following 
table  shows  the  number  of  each  size  measured : 

Number  of  post-holes .  1104646  40  7 

Diameter  of  post-holes  in  inches  3456789  10  11  12 

With  a  few  exceptions,  these  were  not  found  until  a  depth  of  nearly 
30  inches  was  reached.  They  extended  from  10  inches  to  3  feet 
beneath  this  level  and  into  the  hard-pan,  the  majority  being  18  to 
24  inches  deep.  Nearly  all  were  filled  with  dark  earth  mixed  with 
ashes  and  charcoal. 

Several  small  ash-beds  of  various  sizes  were  encountered,  9  to 
30  inches  below  the  surface,  most  of  them  lying  at  a  depth  of 
about  30  inches.  Some  of  them  may  have  been  post-holes  filled 
with  ashes. 


8 


TURNER  GROUP  OF  EARTHWORKS 


A  few  small  pits  occurred  also,  filled  with  black  soil  mixed  with 
charcoal,  ashes,  potsherds,  animal  bones,  and  an  occasional  frag¬ 
ment  of  a  flaked  knife.  These  were  probably  small  abandoned 
cache-pits. 

A  large  hearth,  roughly  triangular  in  form,  was  found  6  inches 
beneath  the  surface.  It  was  made  of  flat  limestones,  many  of 
which  showed  contact  with  fire.  This  hearth  was  similar  to  others 
found  in  different  sections  of  the  embankment.  The  soil  about  the 
hearth  was  black,  and  mixed  with  ashes. 

The  altars  were  mostly  small,  and  only  6  to  7  inches  below  the 
surface.  Altar  1  measured  36  by  25  inches,  and  like  the  other 
altars  of  this  group  was  made  of  clay.  The  cavity  was  4  inches 
deep,  and  the  slope  of  its  sides  was  10  inches.  The  clay  at  its 
center  was  burned  to  a  depth  of  10  inches.  The  corners  were 
rounded,  and  projected  as  shown  in  the  plan.  Mixed  with  the 
ashes  in  the  basin  were  the  perforated  canine  teeth  of  small 
mammals,  beads  of  bone  and  copper,  copper-covered  buttons, 
fragments  of  copper  ear-ornaments,  perforated  fossil  teeth  of  the 
shark,  a  flint  knife  blade,  pieces  of  mica,  fragments  of  carved 
bone$,  and  various  other  articles,  all  more  or  less  injured  by  con¬ 
tact  with  fire.  The  most  remarkable  of  these  objects  are  the 
carved  bones  shown  in  plate  2.  The  bone  spatula  with  the  incised 
drawing  of  a  bird,  illustrated  in  a,  is  perhaps  the  most  refined 
design  yet  taken  from  the  mounds.  The  lines  of  this  carving  were 
originally  filled  with  red  pigment. 

All  of  the  carved  bones  were  broken  and  badly  injured  by  burn¬ 
ing,  but  the  upper  part  of  one  of  the  most  interesting,  which  was 
probably  made  from  a  human  ulna,  has  been  pieced  together. 
This  is  shown  in  h.  The  principal  part  of  the  design  appears  de¬ 
veloped  in  g.  It  represents  the  head  of  an  animal  with  upright 
ears,  between  which  is  an  oval  figure.  This  head,  separated  from 
the  rest  of  the  design,  is  shown  somewhat  reduced  in  d.  By  split¬ 
ting  the  drawing  g,  lengthwise  through  its  center  and  joining  the 
outer  edges,  i  is  produced,  with  the  smaller  head  having  cross- 
hatched  teeth  appearing  in  the  center.  This  head,  also  reduced 
in  size,  is  shown  in  f.  By  reversing  the  drawing  i,  the  horned  head, 
e,  appears  as  the  principal  figure.  The  lower  part  of  this  carved 
bone  which  was  destroyed,  evidently  had  similar  complicated 
patterns. 


Peabody  Museum  Papers 


Vol.  VIII,  No.  3,  Plate  2 


Incised  designs  upon  bone,  from  Altar  1,  Trench  a,  embankment  of  the  Great  Enclosure: 
a,  Spatula-like  object  made  from  rib  bone;  b,  c,  Design  upon  fragments  of  human  femur; 
h,  Portipn  of  human  ulna;  g,  i,  Developed  design  upon  h;  d,  e,  f,  Animal  heads,  somewhat 
reduced,  which  appear  in  g,  h,  i;  The  design  e,  is  seen  when  i  is  reversed.  (About  2/5.) 


HAMILTON  COUNTY,  OHIO 


9 


The  designs  upon  fragments  of  another  carved  bone,  probably 
a  portion  of  human  femur  are  shown  developed  in  b  and  c.  Un¬ 
fortunately,  only  a  small  part  of  this  specimen  could  be  restored, 
and  not  enough  of  the  design  remains  to  be  intelligible.  Like 
most  of  these  curious  carvings,  the  complete  design  represents  a 
conventionalized  animal  form,  probably  a  bird.  Two  other  ex¬ 
amples  of  this  class  of  work  from  the  central  altar  of  mound  3  are 
shown  on  pages  57  and  58.  Interesting  specimens  from  other 
mound  groups  are  figured  elsewhere.1 

Most  of  the  carvings  are  upon  human  bones.  One  of  the  speci¬ 
mens  from  the  Hopewell  Group,  Ross  County,  shows  the  figure 
of  an  ocelot  incised  upon  one  of  the  long  bones  of  a  large  bird. 
Other  examples  are  cut  in  antler  and  shell.  Fragments  of  wooden 
bowls  from  the  Hopewell  Group  show  the  same  type  of  decoration. 
A  stone  pipe  bowl  from  the  Liberty  Group,  representing  a  human 
head,  has  the  face  ornamented  with  this  form  of  decoration,  indi¬ 
cating  its  use  in  face  and  body  painting.  This  highly  specialized 
style  of  ornamentation  was  doubtless  applied  to  many  other  com¬ 
mon  objects. 

This  peculiar  art  development  was  no  doubt  as  characteristic 
of  the  great  earthwork  area  as  that  of  the  Northwest  Coast  tribes 
is  of  the  region  which  they  inhabit.  It  is  probably  true  that  in  no 
section  of  America  north  of  Mexico  had  decorative  art  reached 
a  higher  plane  than  in  southern  Ohio. 

Altar  2  was  intact  but  contained  no  artifacts.  Altars  3,  4,  and 
6  had  been  broken  or  disturbed  by  the  plow. 

Altar  5  was  in  good  condition  and  is  shown  in  plate  9,  a.  This 
is  now  in  the  Cincinnati  Museum.  Its  cavity  was  filled  with 
ashes,  charcoal,  and  burnt  bone.  Among  the  ashes  were  found  a 
perforated  fossil  tooth  of  a  shark,  seventeen  shell  beads  of  various 
forms  and  sizes,  four  pearl  beads,  a  broken  point,  and  fragments 
of  bone  and  antler  implements. 

It  seems  probable  that  a  building  of  some  kind  occupied  the 
space  uncovered  by  this  trench,  possibly  one  of  a  series  of  earth- 
covered  structures  originally  forming  the  enclosure. 

We  are  apt  to  associate  earth-covered  buildings  with  the  Arikara, 
Pawnee,  Mandan,  or  other  western  and  northern  tribes,  forgetting 

1  C.  C.  Willoughby,  The  Art  of  the  Great  Earthwork  Builders  of  Ohio ,  Holmes  Anniversary 
Volume,  Washington,  1916. 


10 


TURNER  GROUP  OF  EARTHWORKS 


that  in  early  historic  times  it  was  the  custom  among  many  of  the 
southern  and  central  Indians  to  cover  the  walls  (and  in  some 
instances  the  roof  also)  of  their  variously  shaped  buildings  with 
clay  or  earth.  The  Caddo,  Taensa,  Natchez,  Choctaw,  and  Biloxi 
are  among  the  tribes  who  followed  this  custom. 

It  was  suggested  by  Lewis  H.  Morgan  1  many  years  ago  that 
long  earth-covered  communal  houses  may  have  occupied  some  of 
the  embankments  of  the  great  earthwork  enclosures  of  southern 
Ohio. 

The  excavation  of  portions  of  this  low  embankment  seems  to 


Figure  4 

Plan  of  Trench  c,  embankment  of  the  Great  Enclosure. 


indicate  that  possibly  in  this  instance  the  enclosure  may  originally 
have  been  formed  of  oblong  earth-covered  buildings,  erected  upon 
the  natural  surface  of  the  ground.  It  is  possible  that  they  may 
have  been  arranged  in  clan  groups,  something  after  the  manner  of 
the  great  tribal  circles  of  some  of  the  Plains  Indians.  As  the  build¬ 
ings  decayed,  the  earth  covering  and  other  debris  would  be  added 
to  the  dark  earth  and  ashes  surrounding  and  covering  the  hearths, 
some  of  which  were  found  undisturbed  during  the  excavations. 
This  is  offered  as  a  suggestion  only,  and  may  be  worth  considering 
in  future  explorations  of  similar  earthworks. 

Trench  B.  To  the  north  of  trench  a,  the  embankment  ap¬ 
parently  had  been  reduced  in  height  for  a  space  of  about  150  feet. 
This  part  was  not  explored.  To  the  northeast  of  this  leveled  portion, 
a  second  trench,  plate  1,  b,  the  same  width  of  the  first,  was  dug 

1  L.  H.  Morgan.  Houses  and  House-Life  of  the  American  Aborigines ,  Contributions  to  North 
American  Ethnology,  Vol.  IV,  pp.  207-214. 


HAMILTON  COUNTY,  OHIO 


11 


for  a  distance  of  200  feet.  Nothing  of  special  interest  was  en¬ 
countered  in  or  beneath  the  embankment  at  this  point.  One  small 
altar  containing  no  artifacts  was  unearthed  near  its  southwestern 
end,  and  seventeen  post-holes,  irregularly  arranged,  two  or  three 
ash-pits  or  ash-beds,  and  the  remains  of  a  child,  were  found  at 
intervals. 

Trench  C.  In  1890  the  exploration  of  the  embankment  at  c, 
plate  1,  was  continued  under  the  charge  of  Mr.  Saville.  Several 
ash-beds,  an  undisturbed  hearth  of  flat  limestones,  and  four  shallow 
graves  were  unearthed.  The  positions  of  these  are  shown  in  the 


plan,  figure  4.  The  composition  of  the  embankment  at  this  point 
was  similar  to  that  shown  by  trench  d. 

Trench  D.  During  the  same  season,  Mr.  Ernest  Volk  also  ex¬ 
plored  150  feet  of  the  embankment  at  the  point  just  east  of  trench  c. 
The  results  are  indicated  in  figure  5. 

Several  hearths  were  found  in  the  eastern  half  of  the  excavation. 
These  consisted  of  one  to  three  layers  of  limestones  which  had  in 
most  cases  been  placed  on  a  thin  layer  of  surface  soil  overlying  a 
natural  stratum  of  clay.  Mixed  with  the  hearth  stones  and  cov¬ 
ering  their  surface  were  ashes,  charcoal,  and  black  soil.  Many  of 
the  stones  were  partially,  and  a  few  wholly,  calcined  by  the  heat. 
The  deepest  of  these  hearths  was  only  14  inches  beneath  the  sur¬ 
face,  but  none  of  them  had  been  disturbed  by  plowing.  The 
hearths  in  the  western  half  of  the  trench,  however,  were  nearer 
the  surface,  and  the  stones  had  been  scattered  by  the  plow  through¬ 
out  this  area.  Mixed  with  the  ashes  and  black  soil  in  both  sec- 


12 


TURNER  GROUP  OF  EARTHWORKS 


lions  were  potsherds,  flint  chips,  fragments  of  mica,  broken  bone, 
and  flint  implements,  broken  and  burnt  bones  of  various  animals, 
and  also  a  fragment  of  a  terra-cotta  figure  similar  to  those  from 
the  altar  of  mound  4. 

Six  post-holes  were  found,  symmetrically  arranged.  The  posi¬ 
tions  of  these  are  shown  by  the  small  circles  in  the  plan.  They 


Figure  6 

Objects  found  with  skeleton  in  Trench  d:  a,  Chipped  knives;  b,  Flaked  knife;  c,  Beaver 
tooth  chisel;  d,  Cut  jaw  of  wolf.  (About  1/2.) 


were  about  3  feet  in  depth.  The  smallest  was  7  inches,  and  the 
largest  was  12  inches  in  diameter.  They  may  have  formed  a  part 
of  the  supporting  timbers  of  a  large  structure.  Near  the  southern 
edge  of  the  black  soil,  in  the  western  part  of  the  trench,  portions  of 


HAMILTON  COUNTY,  OHIO 


13 


a  skeleton  were  found  which  had  apparently  been  disturbed  by 
cultivation.  Only  a  few  fragments  of  the  skull  were  unearthed, 
and  these  showed  contact  with  fire.  With  the  bones  were  nine 
undisturbed  flint  knives  lying  together,  figure  6,  a.  Seven  were 
leaf-shaped,  and  two  had  shallow  side  notches.  Five  of  these 
flint  knives  were  in  a  row,  points  to  the  north.  Above  these  were 
four  others,  with  points  to  the  south.  There  were  found  also  with 
the  bones,  a  flaked  knife,  b;  the  cut  lower  jaw  of  a  gray  wolf,  d; 
and  a  beaver  tooth  chisel,  c. 

At  the  time  of  the  exploration  of  mound  1,  a  trench  was  carried 
into  the  embankment  just  north  of  its  eastern  opening.  A  hearth 


Figure  7 

Elevated  Circle  and  Graded  Way,  looking  nearly  west.  Mound  12  is  shown  in  the  distance 
to  the  right  of  the  center. 


or  stratum  of  burnt  limestones,  6  to  10  inches  deep,  and  about 
30  feet  wide,  formed  its  base  at  this  point.  Dr.  Metz  writes  as 
follows  regarding  its  composition  in  the  vicinity  of  this  excavation : 

The  northeastern  section  of  the  embankment  for  a  distance  of  300  feet  was 
composed  of  ashes,  charcoal,  burnt  limestone,  and  earth,  in  which  were  in¬ 
numerable  fragments  of  chipped  points,  implements,  pottery,  and  burnt  bone, 
also  many  perfect  implements,  beads,  etc.  This  part  of  the  embankment  was 
a  great  place  to  make  surface  finds,  and  many  specimens  were  gathered  by 
collectors. 

The  Elevated  Circle.  This  is  situated  on  what  was  originally 
an  oblong  elevation  or  table-land,  formed  by  a  detached  portion  of 
the  first  river  terrace,  about  2-5  of  a  mile  long  and  550  feet  broad 
near  its  center.  The  central  portion  of  this  terrace  (see  plate  1, 
and  figures  2  and  7)  had  been  made  into  a  circular  elevation  by 


14 


TURNER  GROUP  OF  EARTHWORKS 


cutting  two  deep  ditches  in  the  form  of  segments  of  circles  through 
the  hill.  According  to  Whittlesey’s  measurements,  these  trenches 
were  70  to  85  feet  broad  at  the  top,  and  12  to  18  feet  deep.  The 
top  of  the  elevation  was  25  to  30  feet  above  the  field  of  the  great 
enclosure.  The  greater  portion  of  the  earth  taken  from  these 
great  trenches  had  undoubtedly  been  used  to  form  the  graded 
way,  which  connected  the  elevated  circle  with  the  great  enclosure. 
Probably  a  part  of  it  was  also  used  in  the  construction  of  the 
circular  embankment  upon  the  elevation. 

The  embankment  forming  the  elevated  circle  was,  in  Whittle¬ 
sey’s  day,  about  15  feet  across  and  two  feet  high.  The  enclosure 
formed  by  this  embankment  was  approximately  482  feet  in  diame¬ 
ter,  north  and  south,  and  485  feet,  east  and  west,  and  contained 
two  mounds.  The  space  between  the  circle  and  the  edge  of  the 
embankment  upon  which  it  was  built  was  about  25  feet  wide,  with 
a  gradual  slope  outward. 

BURIAL  PLACES  WITHIN  THE  GREAT  ENCLOSURE 

General  Description.  Upon  the  northwestern  side  of  the  great 
enclosure  at  the  point  marked  e,  plate  1,  is  a  low  ridge,  which  was 
about  a  foot  in  height  above  the  general  level  of  the  field.  This 
ridge  had  been  plowed  since  1825.  Here  Dr.  Metz  had  noticed, 
in  various  places,  small  areas  covered  with  flat  river  stones,  which 
had  been  disturbed  by  plowing.  This,  in  connection  with  the  fact 
that  skeletons  had  been  unearthed  when  the  road  leading  across 
the  ridge  to  the  river  was  made,  led  to  the  conclusion  that  it  was 
the  site  of  an  ancient  cemetery.  Explorations  were  begun  by  Pro¬ 
fessor  Putnam  on  September  22,  1886,  with  the  help  of  two  men, 
and  the  work  was  carried  on  till  October  2.  During  this  time 
graves  1  to  25  were  explored.  The  work  was  continued  in  October 
by  Dr.  Metz,  who  opened  seven  additional  graves  (26  to  32).  The 
plans  and  cross-sections  are  from  sketches  by  these  two  explorers. 
In  1889  and  1890,  other  portions  of  this  burial  place  were  excavated 
by  Mr.  Saville,  who  was  then  a  student  with  Professor  Putnam. 

The  interments  of  the  uncremated  bodies  were  usually  in  com¬ 
paratively  shallow  graves,  many  of  which  were  carefully  con¬ 
structed  and  outlined  with  flat  limestones  set  upright.  In  some 
instances,  a  wall  was  laid  at  the  head  and  foot  (see  plates  4  and  5). 


Peabody  Museum  Papers  Vol.  VIII,  No.  3,  Plate  3 


Burial  Place  within  the  Great  Enclosure.  Its  position  is  shown  by  the  area  e,  plate  1. 


4 


HAMILTON  COUNTY,  OHIO 


15 


The  bottoms  of  a  few  of  the  more  carefully  made  graves  were 
paved  with  flat  stones,  and  upon  this  paving  the  body  was  ex¬ 
tended,  usually  upon  its  back.  Comparatively  few  artifacts  were 
found  with  the  skeletons.  These,  however,  were  usually  of  such  a 
nature  as  to  show  conclusively  that  the  burials  were  contemporary 
with  the  people  who  built  these  mounds  and  enclosures.  The 
graves  were  usually  filled  with  earth,  and  covered  with  one  or 
more  layers  of  limestones,  which  in  some  instances  extended  be¬ 
yond  the  limits  of  the  grave.  Other  graves  were  filled  with  stones. 
Still  others  were  without  the  side  and  end  stones.  These,  however, 
were  usually,  but  not  always,  partially  or  wholly  covered  with  a 
layer  of  stones  near  the  surface. 

The  graves  or  cineraria  containing  cremated  human  remains 
were  usually  small  excavations  outlined,  like  the  larger  graves, 
with  flat  limestones  set  upright.  They  were  circular,  or  in  the 
form  of  a  parallelogram.  Occasionally,  the  ashes  and  burnt  bones 
of  a  cremated  body  were  interred  in  the  grave  with  the  ordinary 
burial.  Sometimes  elaborate  stone  cists  were  constructed  for 
these  remains,  as  in  grave  27  (plates  3,  and  4,  h).  Like  the  large 
graves,  these  cineraria  were  often  protected  by  a  layer  of  stones, 
at  or  near  the  surface.  Some  of  the  layers  covered  much  more 
space  than  was  occupied  by  the  grave  itself.  At  times,  the  cre¬ 
mated  remains  were  placed  in  a  comparatively  shallow  excavation, 
and  covered  with  earth,  no  stones  being  used  in  connection  with 
the  burial. 

A  few  burnt  spaces  and  beds  of  ashes  were  found  in  the  cemetery 
where  bodies  may  have  been  burned,  but  it  seems  more  probable 
that  most  of  the  cremating  took  place  on  the  site  of  one  of  the 
large  mounds,  where  evidences  of  long  continued  and  intense  fires 
were  abundant.  Only  a  few  artifacts  were  found  with  the  cre¬ 
mated  burials. 

Graves  Excavated  by  F.  W.  Putnam,  1886.  Grave  1 }  This  con¬ 
tained  the  skeleton  of  an  adult  extended  upon  its  back,  head  to 
the  west  (see  plates  3,  and  4,  e).  The  grave  was  outlined  with 
upright  limestones.  Just  north  of  the  skull  was  a  large  shell  ves¬ 
sel;  shell  beads  were  at  the  neck;  a  spool-shaped  ear-ornament  of 
copper  rested  in  each  hand;  and  near  the  left  tibia  were  found  a 

1  A  few  of  the  more  important  of  these  graves  are  described  by  Professor  Putnam  in  the 
Peabody  Museum  Reports,  Vol.  Ill,  pp.  556-562. 


16 


TURNER  GROUP  OF  EARTHWORKS 


bead,  a  copper  pin,  a  flint  flake,  and  two  pieces  of  shell.  Within 
the  grave,  and  near  the  right  hand  of  the  skeleton,  rested  a  pile  of 
burnt  human  bones,  about  a  foot  in  diameter. 

Grave  2.  This  small  grave  contained  burnt  human  bones,  and 
was  outlined  with  eleven  flat  stones.  The  inside  measurements 
were:  length,  22  inches;  width,  11  inches;  depth,  10  inches  (plate 
4,  d).  The  grave  was  covered  with  two  large  flat  stones,  and 


Ceremonial  axe  blades  of  eannel  coal  from  Burial  Place  c,  of  the  Great  Enclosure:  a,  From 
Grave  12;  b,  From  Grave  S.  (1/2.) 

several  small  ones.  Two  beads  and  an  ornament,  all  of  shell,  were 
found  with  the  bones. 

Grave  3.  Although  covered  with  stones,  and  having  the  general 
appearance  of  a  grave,  this  may  have  been  used  for  another  pur¬ 
pose.  It  was  about  4  feet  in  diameter,  and  had  been  dug  in  the 
gravel  to  about  the  same  depth.  It  was  filled  with  black  soil, 
charcoal,  and  ashes.  It  had  much  the  appearance  of  a  cache-pit. 
No  human  remains  were  found  in  it. 

Grave  4.  A  small  grave  with  stones  surrounding  it.  It  con¬ 
tained  the  extended  skeleton  of  a  child,  head  to  the  east. 

Grave  5.  This  was  64  feet  long,  33  inches  wide,  and  20  inches 
deep,  and  was  outlined  with  the  usual  upright  stones.  Four  large 
flat  stones,  upon  which  the  body  had  been  placed,  nearly  covered 


Peabody  Museum  Papers 


Vol.  VIII,  No.  3,  Plate  4 


d 


e 


Cross-sections  of  graves  containing  skeletons  or  cremated  human  remains,  Burial  Place  in 
the  Great  Enclosure:  a,  Grave  29;  b,  Grave  32;  c,  Grave  7;  d,  Grave  2;  e,  Grave  1; 
f,  Grave  24;  g,  Grave  21;  h,  Grave  27. 


HAMILTON  COUNTY,  OHIO 


17 


the  bottom  of  the  grave.  The  body  was  extended,  head  to  the 
east.  With  the  bones  of  each  hand  lay  a  spool-shaped  ear-orna¬ 
ment  of  copper.  At  the  side  of  the  grave  near  the  left  shoulder 
were  two  pairs  of  similar  ornaments,  and  a  bone  point.  At  its 
foot  near  the  southern  corner  lay  a  conical  stone  object,  bear  teeth 
ornaments,  and  a  piece  of  galena.  Two  of  the  teeth  were  inlaid 
with  pearls.  Under  the  large  floor-stone  near  the  foot  of  the  grave 
were  several  flint  flaked  knives,  and  a  small  copper  blade  (figure  44, 
b).  Beneath  the  second  floor-stone  lay  the  two  discs  of  a  spool¬ 
shaped  ear-ornament,  and  a  portion  of  a  copper-covered  bead. 
Under  the  third  floor-stone  were  a  copper  bead,  and  a  band  of 
thin  copper.  These  objects  are  shown  in  plate  6,  a. 

Grave  6.  This  was  neatly  walled,  and  covered  with  twenty-one 
small  stones.  It  contained  two  skeletons,  which  are  shown  in 
plate  5,  b.  One  extended  on  its  back,  skull  to  the  west,  and  arms 
lying  at  full  length;  left  hand  over  hip,  and  the  right  a  few  inches 
away  from  side  of  hip.  The  legs  had  been  pushed  to  one  side  to 
make  room  for  the  second  body,  the  skull  of  which  was  just  below 
the  hips  of  the  first.  The  legs  of  the  second  body  were  somewhat 
drawn  up,  extending  by  the  side  and  partly  under  the  legs  of  the 
first.  The  bodies  were  both  adults,  the  extended  one  probably  a 
female,  and  the  other  a  male.  They  evidently  were  interred  at 
the  same  time. 

Grave  7.  This  is  shown  beyond  grave  6,  in  plate  5,  b.  It  is 
surrounded  by  eleven  stones  set  on  edge.  Dimensions,  30  by  16 
inches.  Its  bottom  was  partly  covered  by  seven  small  stones. 
It  contained  burnt  human  bones,  and  a  much  disintegrated  tobacco 
pipe.  A  cross-section  of  this  grave  appears  in  plate  4,  c. 

Grave  8.  This  proved  to  be  a  pile  of  gravel,  9^  feet  long  by  4 
feet  wide,  carefully  covered  with  many  stones,  6  to  12  inches  in 
diameter.  The  surface  soil  had  been  cleared  away  all  about  the 
gravel,  leaving  it  in  the  form  of  a  grave  mound,  but  there  were  no 
edge  stones.  No  skeleton  was  discovered  beneath  the  gravel.  To 
the  east  of  this  grave,  at  a  distance  of  3  feet,  was  the  edge  of  a 
fireplace,  6  feet  in  diameter,  where  the  clay  overlying  the  gravel 
had  been  burned  to  a  depth  of  3  or  4  inches. 

Grave  9.  Adult  skeleton,  head  to  the  west.  The  grave  was  not 
outlined  with  stones.  Bits  of  mica  were  near  the  right  side. 


18 


TURNER  GROUP  OF  EARTHWORKS 


Grave  10.  Considerable  gravel,  and  about  thirty  stones  were 
over  this  grave,  which  contained  the  skeleton  of  an  adult  at  a 
depth  of  16  inches  from  the  surface.  The  skull,  which  is  shown 
in  plate  25,  occupied  the  southwestern  corner,  and  rested  upon 
its  left  side.  A  small  axe  blade  of  cannel  coal  (figure  8,  b)  lay  near 
the  right  arm  in  such  a  position  as  to  indicate  that  its  handle  had 
rested  in  the  hand  of  the  deceased.  Within  the  grave,  to  the  south 
of  the  leg  bones,  was  a  small  circle  of  upright  stones,  containing 
burnt  human  bones,  probably  the  remains  of  a  cremated  bodjr. 

Grave  11.  A  stone-covered  grave  that  had  been  disturbed  by 
the  plow.  No  bones  were  found. 

Grave  12.  This  was  close  to  grave  11.  It  contained  two  skele¬ 
tons.  The  one  at  the  south  side  was  extended,  head  to  the  east. 
The  bones  of  the  second  skeleton  were  in  a  pile.  Beside  the  skull 
lay  a  shell  ornament,  while  among  the  bones  a  short  distance  from 
the  skull  lay  an  axe  blade  of  cannel  coal  (figure  8,  a).  This  bunched 
skeleton  was  evidently  a  secondary  burial. 

Grave  13.  A  small  grave  carefully  made,  outlined  with  side 
stones,  and  covered  with  twenty-six  small  stones;  probably  for 
cremated  human  remains.  No  bones  were  found  in  it. 

Grave  14 •  Of  small  size,  4  feet  long  and  1  foot  wide.  No  human 
remains  found. 

Grave  13.  The  end  walls  of  this  grave  were  carefully  constructed, 
but  the  sides  were  made  by  simply  placing  a  row  of  stones  in  the 
clay.  The  bottom  of  the  grave  was  not  paved,  the  body  being 
placed  upon  the  natural  gravel  bed,  with  its  head  to  the  west. 
The  foot  bones  and  skull  touched  the  opposite  ends  of  the  grave. 
A  flaked  knife  lay  near  the  left  shoulder.  At  the  neck  were  two 
shell  beads.  A  copper  band  rested  upon  the  breast  bone,  and  a 
copper  ear-ornament  lay  with  the  bones  of  each  hand.  A  number 
of  flaked  knives  were  also  found.  These  specimens  are  shown  at 
the  left  in  plate  7,  a. 

Grave  16.  This  was  nearly  circular  in  form,  about  4  feet  in 
diameter,  and  was  outlined  with  twenty-one  stones.  Resting  on 
the  stones  at  the  bottom  of  the  grave  were  cremated  human 
remains. 

Grave  17.  Just  north  of  grave  15,  their  side  walls  adjoining. 
The  body  had  been  buried  in  clay.  Small  stones  covered  top  of 
grave. 


Peabody  Museum  Papers 


Vol.  VIII,  No.  3,  Plate  5 


Burial  Place  in  the  Great  Enclosure:  a,  Grave  6-b,  with  Grave  9-b  in  background;  b, 
Grave  6,  with  Grave  7  in  the  background  containing  cremated  remains;  c,  Grave  S-b. 


HAMILTON  COUNTY,  OHIO 


19 


Grave  18.  This  had  been  dug  in  gravel  to  the  depth  of  3  feet, 
and  had  over  it  a  pile  of  gravel  8  inches  high,  surrounded  by  small 
stones  set  on  edge.  The  skeleton  lay  with  its  head  to  the  south¬ 
east.  Near  the  right  shoulder  rested  a  large  shell  vessel.  Two 
perforated  bear  teeth,  an  ear-ornament  of  copper,  and  a  small 
plate  of  hammered  copper  were  at  the  neck;  an  ear-ornament  of 
the  usual  form  had  been  placed  in  either  hand  (plate  6,  c).  The 
skull  from  this  grave  is  shown  in  plate  26. 

Grave  19.  Surrounded  and  covered  with  stones.  Gravel  pile 
over  it.  Contained  skeleton  of  child. 

Grave  20.  A  small  circular  grave  outlined  with  upright  stones. 
It  contained  the  skeleton  of  a  child  in  a  flexed  position,  lying  on 
its  left  side,  facing  north.  With  the  remains  were  a  small  copper 
blade,  the  bone  of  a  turkey,  a  flaked  knife,  an  axe  blade,  and  four 
small  concretions  of  curious  form,  two  of  which  are  cup-shaped. 
These  are  shown  in  the  group  at  the  right,  plate  7,  a. 

Grave  21.  Small,  about  2  by  3  feet,  and  2  feet  in  depth.  Out¬ 
lined  and  covered  with  stones.  It  contained  burnt  human  bones, 
and  fragments  of  a  thin  copper  ornament  (plate  4,  g) . 

Grave,  22.  This  had  been  partially  destroyed  by  the  plow.  It 
was  the  small  stone-covered  grave  of  a  child. 

Grave  23.  An  area  7  feet  long  and  4  feet  wide,  covered  with  flat 
stones.  This  had  been  dug  to  a  depth  of  4  feet,  and  filled  with 
loose  gravel  and  mixed  earth.  No  human  remains  were  found. 

Grave  2 4.  This  proved  to  be  nearly  a  duplicate  in  size  of  grave 
23.  Unlike  the  latter,  however,  its  bottom  was  paved  with  forty- 
nine  flat  river  stones,  6  to  12  inches  in  diameter.  In  the  eastern 
half  of  the  grave,  fragments  of  a  skeleton  were  found  resting  on 
the  pavement,  the  skull  against  the  northern  bank.  Two  flint 
knives  and  a  few  potsherds  were  taken  from  the  grave.  Over  the 
bones  was  a  pile  of  about  three  hundred  river  stones,  6  to  18  inches 
in  diameter,  completely  filling  the  grave  (plate  4,  f).  Mixed  with 
the  stones  was  loose  black  earth,  evidently  the  result  of  infiltration. 

Grave  25.  Outlined  with  flat  limestones.  Skeleton  extended  on 
back  with  head  to  the  west.  Several  flint  flakes  rested  on  the  right 
scapula,  which  was  much  decayed. 

Cache-pits  and  Post-holes.  To  the  northeast  of  grave  21,  a  stone- 
covered  pit  was  located,  which  had  been  dug  to  the  depth  of  3  feet 
in  disturbed  earth  to  the  hard  gravel.  No  human  bones  were 


20 


TURNER  GROUP  OF  EARTHWORKS 


found,  only  a  few  potsherds  and  bones  of  animals.  In  addition 
to  the  above,  Professor  Putnam  found  a  small  number  of  post- 
holes,  burnt  areas,  anti  what  appear  to  be  cache-pits,  which  are 
located  upon  the  plan. 

Grave  25,  explored  October  2,  was  the  last  one  opened  by  Pro¬ 
fessor  Putnam,  in  this  cemetery.  The  work  was  continued  during 
a  portion  of  the  month  by  Dr.  Metz,  who  explored  graves  26  to 
32.  These  were  in  the  northern  portion  of  this  cemetery.  The 
following  account  is  from  the  notes  of  Dr.  Metz. 

Graves  Excavated  by  C.  L.  Metz,  1886.  Grave  26.  An  irregular 
area  covered  with  flat  stones,  15|  feet  in  length,  and  5  feet  in 
width  at  its  widest  point.  Beneath  the  stones  a  pit  9  feet  long  and 
4  feet  wide,  had  been  dug  to  a  depth  of  3  feet.  This  contained 
black  soil,  sand,  and  gravel.  On  the  bottom  near  its  center  lay  a 
piece  of  mica;  near  its  northern  end  a  post-hole,  10  inches  in 
diameter  and  19  inches  deep,  had  been  sunk  beneath  the  level  of 
the  floor.  No  human  remains  were  found. 

Grave  27.  This  was  a  stone-covered  space,  12  feet  long  and  6  feet 
wide.  On  removing  the  stones,  two  pits  were  discovered  (see 
longitudinal-section,  plate  4,  h).  Pit  1  was  4  feet  wide,  and  had 
been  dug  to  the  same  depth.  It  contained  dark  earth,  a  few  animal 
remains,  and  burnt  stones.  Pit  2  was  filled  with  stones,  as  shown 
in  the  drawing.  A  little  north  of  the  center,  pit  2,  was  a  cist  (a'), 
18  inches  long  and  12  inches  high,  containing  fragments  of  human 
bones;  and  against  a  portion  of  the  temporal  bone  rested  one-half 
of  a  copper  ear-ornament.  Shell  beads  were  also  found  with  the 
bones.  At  the  southern  end  of  the  pit,  and  near  its  bottom,  a 
second  cist  (IP)  was  discovered,  containing  cremated  human  bones 
and  the  remains  of  a  pair  of  copper  ear-ornaments.  There  were  no 
indications  that  the  burning  of  the  bodies  had  been  carried  on  in 
the  pit.  The  cremating  had  evidently  taken  place  elsewhere,  and 
the  ashes  and  partially  burnt  bones  placed  in  the  tomb  made  to 
receive  them. 

Grave  28.  This  had  been  dug  to  a  depth  of  little  more  than  3 
feet,  and  measured  6  feet  long  by  4  feet  wide.  The  stone-covered 
area  over  the  grave  was  10  feet  long  by  4|  feet  wide.  These  stones 
were  covered  to  a  depth  of  9  inches  by  surface  soil.  The  grave 
contained  the  extended  skeleton  of  an  adult,  head  to  the  south¬ 
west.  No  artifacts  were  found  with  it. 


wmgsgun 


Peabody  Museum  Papers 


Vol.  VIII,  No.  3,  Plate  6 


Artifacts  found  with  human  remains:  a,  From  Grave  5;  b,  With  Skeleton  d,  Mound  12; 
c,  From  Grave  18;  d,  From  place  of  cremation  (10),  Mound  3.  (1/5.) 


HAMILTON  COUNTY,  OHIO 


21 


Grave  29.  Sides  and  ends  lined  with  upright  stones.  Adult 
skeleton,  placed  face  downward,  legs  flexed  on  thighs.  Bones 
badly  broken  by  four  large  stones  which  lay  over  the  skeleton. 
The  stones  covering  the  grave  extended  6  to  8  inches  beyond  the 
edge  of  the  excavation  (plate  4,  a). 

Grave  30.  A  crescent-shaped  arc  of  stones,  5  feet  long  and  1  to 
2  feet  wide,  under  which  was  a  pit  2  feet  deep  and  8  inches  wide, 
containing  black  soil  and  ashes,  a  fragment  of  unio  shell,  and  a 
few  animal  bones.  No  human  remains,  recognized  as  such,  were 
found. 

Grave  31.  A  space  3  feet  long  and  12  inches  wide,  covered  with 
the  usual  flat  stones.  Beneath  this  was  a  pit,  2  feet  long,  8  inches 
wide,  and  3|  feet  deep.  At  its  bottom  was  about  a  foot  of  white 
ashes  containing  a  few  fragments  of  animal  bones;  above  the 
ashes  was  a  stratum  of  gravel,  the  remainder  of  the  pit  being 
filled  with  black  soil. 

Grave  32.  An  oval  stone-covered  area,  4  feet  long  and  3  feet 
wide,  under  which  was  a  grave  in  the  form  of  a  parallelogram, 
30  inches  long,  24  inches  broad,  and  6  inches  deep.  This  was  out¬ 
lined  with  flat  limestones.  It  contained  burnt  human  bones 
covered  with  a  layer  of  sand  and  ashes,  in  which  were  found  a 
long  implement  of  bone,  and  several  awls  and  needles  of  the  same 
material  (plate  4,  b). 

Graves  Excavated  by  M.  H.  Saville,  1889-90.  In  connection 
with  other  work  for  the  Museum  at  this  group  of  mounds,  in  1889, 
Mr.  Saville  explored  the  small  area  of  this  burial  place  lying  to 
the  west  of  the  roadway  (see  plate  3). 

Grave  1-a.  The  principal  burial  in  this  grave  lay  2  feet  beneath 
the  surface,  head  to  the  southwest.  A  large  busycon  shell  vessel 
rested  near  the  left  side  of  the  skull,  and  near  the  left  shoulder 
were  several  flaked  knives.  On  the  upper  part  of  the  breast  lay 
a  copper  band,  3  inches  long  and  2  inches  wide,  with  the  sides  bent 
over.  This  was  similar  to  the  bent  copper  bands  from  graves  5 
and  15,  although  somewhat  larger.  The  bones  of  a  second  skeleton 
were  scattered  over  the  lower  half  of  the  first.  Its  pelvis  was  in 
three  pieces;  its  skull  lay  near  its  feet  bones,  while  the  lower  jaw 
rested  a  foot  from  it.  The  earth  covering  the  upper  portion  of  the 
first  skeleton  had  been  burned;  and  about  a  foot  above  the  head 
and  shoulders,  and  the  same  distance  below  the  surface,  was  a 


22 


TURNER  GROUP  OF  EARTHWORKS 


bed  of  burnt  human  bones,  12  inches  in  diameter,  and  an  inch 
thick.  A  layer  of  flat  limestones  covered  this  cremated  burial. 

Grave  2-a.  Beneath  a  layer  of  burnt  earth  mixed  with  ashes, 
14  inches  from  the  surface,  was  a  much  decayed  skeleton,  head  to 
the  southwest.  No  artifacts  were  found  with  it. 

Grave  3-a.  Covering  this  interment  was  a  layer  of  limestones. 
The  body  had  been  placed  with  the  head  to  the  south.  It  lay  15 
inches  from  the  surface.  Near  the  left  side  of  the  pelvis  were  the 
remains  of  a  large  shell  vessel.  Near  the  west  side  of  this  grave 
was  a  small  circular  altar-like  structure  of  burnt  clay,  21  inches 
across,  with  a  basin  12  inches  in  diameter  and  4  inches  deep,  con¬ 
taining  mixed  soil  and  charcoal.  This  altar  was  nearly  4  feet 
below  the  surface. 

Grave  4~a.  This  contained  the  skeleton  of  a  child.  It  lay  with 
head  to  the  south,  and  near  the  top  of  the  skull  was  a  fragmentary 
pottery  vessel. 

Grave  5-a.  One  foot  beneath  the  surface,  a  layer  of  limestones 
was  uncovered.  On  removing  these  stones,  a  grave  extending  9 
feet  north  and  south  was  found.  It  was  outlined  with  flat  stones 
set  upright,  and  was  4  feet  8  inches  wide  at  the  center,  and  3  feet 
wide  at  the  ends.  Just  within  the  upright  lining  stones,  at  either 
end,  lay  a  large  limestone  slab.  This  carefully  constructed  grave 
contained  two  adult  skeletons,  extended  heads  to  the  south.  The 
skull  of  the  skeleton  to  the  west  had  been  destroyed  by  the  digging 
of  a  hole  for  a  fence  post.  Some  of  the  fragments  which  remained 
were  impregnated  with  copper  salts,  showing  that  some  article 
of  copper,  small  pieces  of  which  were  found,  had  been  deposited 
in  contact  with  it.  The  skeleton  in  the  eastern  portion  of  the 
grave  was  lying  partly  upon  its  left  side.  In  each  hand  rested  a 
spool-shaped  ear-ornament  of  copper.  At  the  feet  of  each  bodjr 
a  busycon  shell  vessel  had  been  placed.  Between  the  adult 
skeletons  and  near  the  right  shoulder  of  the  first,  were  the  remains 
of  a  child,  a  shell  vessel,  and  several  small  pieces  of  copper.  Be¬ 
tween  the  lower  limbs  of  the  adult  skeletons  were  a  considerable 
quantity  of  human  remains,  two  pieces  of  galena,  and  a  thick  piece 
of  mica,  which  had  also  been  subjected  to  the  action  of  fire. 

Grave  6-a.  This  contained  only  a  part  of  the  skeleton,  the  skull 
and  bones  of  the  upper  part  of  body  having  been  washed  out  of 
the  embankment  formed  by  the  roadway. 


HAMILTON  COUNTY,  OHIO 


23 


Grave  7-a.  An  extended  burial,  head  to  the  north.  Bones 
much  decayed.  No  artifacts. 

Grave  8-a.  A  much  decayed  skeleton,  2  feet  from  the  surface, 
head  a  little  west  of  south.  Large  limestones  were  at  the  head  and 
foot  of  the  grave  which  was  covered  with  a  stone  layer.  Twelve 
inches  west  from  the  edge  of  the  grave  were  two  large  stone  slabs 
beneath  which,  at  a  depth  of  2  feet,  was  a  mass  of  burnt  human 
bones,  4  inches  in  depth,  occupying  a  space  3  feet  long  and  1J  feet 
wide. 

Grave  9-a.  This  contained  a  flexed  skeleton,  lying  upon  its 
left  side,  head  to  the  east.  Near  the  feet  and  leg  bones  was  a  bed 
of  cremated  human  remains,  2  feet  from  the  surface. 

Cache-pits  and  Other  Remains.  A  few  feet  southeast  of  grave 
2-a,  and  6  inches  below  the  surface,  a  bed  of  flat  limestones,  4  feet 
long  and  2  feet  wide,  was  found.  At  its  western  end,  and  10  inches 
from  the  surface,  was  a  mass  of  burnt  bone,  presumably  human, 
in  small  fragments. 

A.  short  distance  to  the  west  of  grave  3-a,  and  the  circular  altar, 
was  a  hearth  or  burnt  space,  3  feet  long  by  2  feet  wide.  To  the 
east  of  grave  8-a  was  a  stone-covered  pit  containing  large  masses  of 
burnt  clay  and  charcoal. 

A  few  cache-pits  and  post-holes  occurred,  mostly  to  the  south¬ 
west  of  these  burials.  The  pits  were  usually  4  to  6  feet  deep,  and 
30  to  40  inches  in  diameter.  They  contained  charcoal,  ashes,  burnt 
clay,  potsherds,  and  animal  bones.  The  post-holes  were  usually 
about  10  inches  in  diameter,  and  18  to  24  inches  deep. 

Work  was  continued  in  this  cemetery  by  Mr.  Saville  in  1890  in 
the  southeastern  portion,  within  the  area  enclosed  by  broken  lines. 

Grave  5-b.  This  burial  was  less  than  a  foot  from  the  surface, 
and  was  extended  upon  the  back.  Near  the  right  shoulder  was  a 
sandstone  pipe  of  unusual  form,  figure  11,  b.  Near  the  left  elbow 
was  a  small  pile  of  stones,  and  near  the  right  foot,  a  flaked  knife. 
If  stones  originally  covered  the  grave,  they  were  probably  disturbed 
by  the  plow,  and  removed. 

Grave  6-b.  This  contained  a  single  extended  skeleton,  upon  a 
pavement  of  flat  stones  (plate  5,  a).  The  tops  of  the  well-made 
walls  at  the  head  and  foot  were  12  inches  from  the  surface,  and 
the  sides  of  the  grave  were  outlined  with  flat  stones  set  upright. 
In  the  right  hand  of  the  skeleton  rested  a  piece  of  galena,  and  the 


24 


TURNER  GROUP  OF  EARTHWORKS 


worked  lower  jaw  of  a  bear.  In  the  left  hand,  two  small  pieces 
of  galena  had  been  placed.  The  stones  forming  the  foot  of  the 
grave  lay  over  a  filled  pit  of  unusual  extent.  This  was  about  3  feet 
in  diameter,  and  had  been  excavated  to  a  depth  of  10  feet.  It  was 
filled  with  burnt  clay  and  charcoal,  mixed  with  a  few  animal 
bones  and  flaked  stones.  Small  piles  of  stones,  five  or  six  in  a  pile, 
were  found  at  various  depths. 

Grave  7-b.  The  body  was  extended,  head  to  the  southeast,  and 
lay  about  12  inches  beneath  the  surface.  The  grave  was  not  paved, 
but  was  outlined  with  the  usual  flat  stones  set  on  edge.  Near  the 
left  tibia,  fourteen  unperforated  canine  teeth  of  the  bear  were 
lying  in  a  pile,  together  with  a  piece  of  much  decayed  worked 
antler,  evidently  the  handle  of  the  flint  knife  found  near  it.  There 
was  also  a  small  rudely  chipped  knife,  probably  unfinished. 

Grave  8-b.  This  was  without  the  outline  of  upright  stones,  and 
contained  the  skeleton  of  a  child,  2  feet  9  inches  beneath  the  sur¬ 
face.  Near  the  skull  rested  a  large  busycon  shell  food  vessel, 
within  which  was  a  large  unio  shell  spoon.  A  similar  spoon  and 
one  valve  of  a  unio  shell,  unworked,  lay  near  the  vessel.  This 
burial  is  shown  in  plate  5,  c. 

Grave  9 -b.  A  few  feet  to  the  south  of  grave  6-b,  excavations 
revealed  a  layer  of  stones  a  few  inches  beneath  the  surface.  This 
is  shown  in  the  background  in  a,  plate  5.  Upon  removing  this 
layer,  other  stones  were  found,  and  nearly  a  cart-load  was  taken 
out.  Three  inches  under  the  lower  layer  of  stones,  and  3  feet  9 
inches  from  the  surface,  was  the  extended  skeleton  of  an  adult 
male.  Three  inches  from  the  right  side  of  the  skull  lay  a  pottery 
vessel,  crushed  by  the  weight  of  the  stones  above.  Within  it 
was  a  unio  shell  spoon.  Against  the  pot  rested  a  large  busycon 
shell  vessel,  and  against  this  was  a  sheet  of  mica.  Among  the 
bones  of  the  right  hand  were  two  ear-ornaments  of  copper,  and 
in  the  left  hand  two  similar  but  less  well-preserved  ornaments. 
On  the  left  side,  between  the  arm  bones  and  ribs,  were  scattered 
nineteen  small  shell  beads,  and  six  bone  awls  or  pins  with  points 
toward  the  shoulder.  Resting  on  the  awls  were  a  flaked  knife  of 
chalcedony,  and  a  copper  pin  (plate  7,  c). 

Grave  10-b.  This  was  small,  and  contained  cremated  human  re¬ 
mains  and  a  copper  pin  or  awl.  About  3  feet  to  the  southwest  was 
another  similar  interment,  without  artifacts. 


Peabody  Museum  Papers 


Vol.  VIII,  No.  3,  Plate  7 


a,  Artifacts  from  Graves  15  (left)  and  20;  b,  From  Grave  16,  Mound  1;  e,  From  Grave 
9-b;  d,  Cremated  human  bones,  place  of  cremation,  Mound  3.  (1/6.) 


HAMILTON  COUNTY,  OHIO 


25 


Grave  11-b.  The  skeleton  was  extended  21  inches  beneath  the 
surface,  head  to  the  west.  The  grave  was  neither  outlined  nor 
covered  with  stones.  A  small  quantity  of  mica  lay  near  the  left 
femur.  The  bones  were  much  decayed. 

Grave  12-b.  The  most  westerly  of  the  graves  in  this  group.  The 
skeleton  lay  3  feet  beneath  the  surface  under  a  few  limestones. 
Some  of  the  bones  were  disarranged.  Both  bones  of  each  lower  leg 
were  broken  squarely  across  at  about  a  third  of  their  length  below 
the  knee.  The  extremities  of  the  right  leg  lay  nearly  at  right  angles 
across  the  right  femur  just  below  its  center,  while  those  of  the 
left  extended  diagonally  downward  from  near  the  center  of  the 
left  femur.  The  foot  bones  occupied  their  normal  position  in  rela¬ 
tion  to  the  lower  portions  of  each  tibia  and  fibula.  The  skull  was 
twisted  from  its  natural  position,  its  right  side  resting  upon  the 
upper  portion  of  the  right  humerus.  Near  the  skull  lay  a  busycon 


Figure  9 

Graves  north  of  Mound  14. 


shell  vessel,  and  an  antler  needle  16  inches  long  and  f  of  an  inch 
in  diameter. 

Cache-pits.  Five  pits  occupied  the  positions  shown  in  the  plan. 
Most  of  these  were  4  to  6  feet  deep,  and  about  30  inches  in  diame¬ 
ter  at  the  top.  From  the  surface  downward,  the  contents  of  pit 
1  were  as  follows:  6  inches  of  black  soil;  33  inches  of  clay;  9 
inches  of  gravel;  and  27  inches  of  charcoal,  burnt  clay,  and  pieces 
of  bone  and  chert.  The  contents  of  the  other  pits  were  similar. 

Graves  Excavated  by  Ernest  Volk,  1905.  To  the  northeast  of 
the  group  of  seven  altar-mounds  in  the  southeastern  part  of  the 
great  enclosure,  a  few  graves  were  explored  by  Mr.  Yolk  for  the 
Museum  in  1905.  These  were  similar  to  the  burials  in  the  north¬ 
western  portion  of  the  enclosure  already  described.  The  top-soil 
to  the  northeast  of  the  altar-mounds  was  12  inches  deep.  Beneath 
this,  and  covering  the  graves,  was  a  6-inch  layer  of  sand  and  gravel. 


26 


TURNER  GROUP  OF  EARTHWORKS 


The  pebbles  in  the  gravel  were  very  small,  and  the  layer  was  ap¬ 
parently  not  a  natural  deposit.  This  stratum  spread  out  north¬ 
ward  from  the  base  of  mound  14  for  about  50  feet. 

Grave  1-c.  This  was  found  just  beneath  the  layer  of  sand  and 
gravel.  It  was  outlined  with  a  few  flat  stones  set  upright  (figure  9, 
lc).  The  burial  was  of  an  adult,  lying  upon  its  back,  head  to  the 


-■ — . — 


Figure  10 

Objects  from  Grave  1-c,  near  Mound  14:  Flaked  knives,  bone  needles  and  bodkins.  (1/2.) 


south,  at  a  depth  of  2  feet.  Near  the  neck  were  a  number  of  dis- 
coidal  shell  beads,  and  at  the  wrists  the  remains  of  bracelets  of 
similar  beads  and  small  perforated  shells.  Near  the  left  shoulder 
were  fifteen  flaked  knives  in  a  heap,  which  had  probably  been 
deposited  in  a  bag  or  similar  receptacle.  Not  far  from  these  were 
two  needles  and  two  perforators  of  bone,  and  a  pile  of  perforated 
marginella  shells.  Just  beyond  were  two  large  bone  bodkins,  one 
of  which  was  decorated,  lying  with  their  heads  together,  the 
points  in  opposite  directions.  Both  were  perforated  for  suspension 


HAMILTON  COUNTY,  OHIO 


27 


(figure  10).  Near  the  left  tibia  were  fragments  of  what  was  prob¬ 
ably  a  shell  spoon.  Upon  the  right  side  of  the  skeleton,  about 
half-way  between  the  shoulder  and  elbow,  and  at  a  distance  of 
one  foot,  was  a  small  heap  of  burnt  bones  of  an  adult.  To  one 
side  and  beneath  one  of  the  stones  outlining  the  grave  were  numer¬ 
ous  unburnt  bones  of  children. 

Grave  2-c.  A  short  distance  to  the  south  of  grave  1— c  was  found 
a  circular  layer  of  eleven  stones,  just  below  the  reach  of  the  plow. 


Tobacco  pipes:  a.  From  grave  beneath  the  base  of  Mound  1:  b.  Grave  o-b.  Burial  Place  e, 
Great  Enclosure:  c.  Grave  in  embankment  of  Elevated  Circle:  d.  Grave  2-c, 
north  of  Mound  14  (1/3.) 

The  diameter  of  the  circle  was  a  little  less  than  5  feet.  The  follow¬ 
ing  description  is  from  Mr.  Yolk’s  report : 

Took  the  top  slab  off  and  found  under  it  several  pieces  of  crania  of  children. 
On  the  northeast,  among  the  slabs  and  touching  them  were  fragments  of  bones 
of  infants.  On  the  east,  between  the  small  stones  below  the  large  slab  were 
also  fragments  of  small  human  crania.  One  half  of  the  skull  of  a  child  lay 
bowl  up,  and  another  alongside  of  this,  bowl  down.  Other  parts  of  children’s 
bones  were  lying  among  the  stones.  Under  the  portion  of  skull  which  lay 
bowl  down,  I  found  a  fragment  of  tibia,  two  fragments  of  rib,  and  a  piece  of 
breast  bone,  and  near  the  skull  fragment,  a  portion  of  a  jaw  with  teeth. 

On  removing  the  slab  from  the  northwest  side  of  the  circle,  I  found  char¬ 
coal  and  ashes.  Under  the  west  slab  was  a  small  pit,  18  inches  in  diameter, 
and  8  inches  in  depth,  which  was  filled  with  burnt  and  calcined  human  bones, 
apparently  of  an  adult  or  adults,  and  also  a  sandstone  pipe  [figure  11.  d],  and 
a  shell  bead.  Just  south  of  the  pit  were  more  fragments  of  the  bones  of  in¬ 
fants.  None  of  the  infant  bones  from  this  grave  were  burned. 


28 


TURNER  GROUP  OF  EARTHWORKS 


Grave  3-c.  A  double  grave  outlined  with  limestones  set  on  edge, 
and  covered  with  flat  stones  of  various  sizes.  The  grave  was 
divided  by  an  oblong  stone  of  symmetrical  shape  placed  across 
its  center.  In  the  eastern  half  were  portions  of  the  skull  and 
humerus  of  an  adult,  and  upon  either  side  of  the  skull  lay  a  busycon 
shell  vessel,  anti  the  remains  of  two  unio  shells,  evidently  used  for 
spoons. 

The  western  half  of  the  grave  contained  a  few  pieces  of  human 
bones.  Upon  removing  the  long  slab  dividing  the  grave,  fragments  of 
the  bones  of  children  and  adults  mixed  with  earth  were  discovered. 

A  short  distance  to  the  north  of  this  grave,  a  stone-covered 
space  (4,  c)  was  found,  7^  feet  long  and  3  feet  wide.  No  burials 


Figure  12.  —  Cross-section  of  Mound  1:  1,  Clay;  2,  Yellow  clay;  3,  Mottled  clay,  sand 
ashes  and  black  earth;  8,  White  ashes;  9,  Altar  with  enclosed  skeleton;  10,  Fireplace  with 


were  encountered  beneath  the  stones.  This  seems  to  be  analogous 
to  the  stone-covered  pits,  containing  no  skeleton,  found  in  the 
cemetery  in  the  northwestern  part  of  the  enclosure,  which,  if  not 
actually  graves,  must  be  closely  related  to  them. 

Mr.  Volk  found  also  one  or  two  additional  burials  and  stone- 
covered  spaces  while  excavating  in  the  great  enclosure,  near  the 
roadway  to  the  west  of  the  earth  circle  surrounding  mound  2. 


THE  MOUNDS  AND  THEIR  CONTENTS 

Mound  1.  This  stood  near  the  northeastern  entrance  to  the 
main  enclosure.  It  was  56  feet  in  diameter,  measuring  from  the 
outer  edge  of  the  low  stone  wall  which  outlined  its  base,  and  a 
little  less  than  5  feet  in  elevation.  The  wall  was  about  2  feet 
in  width,  and  a  foot  in  height.  The  general  construction  of  the 
earthwork  is  shown  in  the  cross-section,  figure  12.  Only  one 


HAMILTON  COUNTY,  OHIO 


29 


original  burial  was  found  above  the  concrete  layer  which  formed 
the  base  of  the  mound.  All  others,  with  the  exception  of  intrusive 
interments,  occurred  just  below  this  layer. 

The  term  concrete  is  used  throughout  this  paper  to  designate  a 
layer,  usually  about  2  to  4  inches  thick,  composed  principally  of 
gravel,  coarse  sand,  and  ashes,  cemented  into  a  compact  mass. 
In  some  instances,  traces  of  what  appears  to  be  iron  are  seen;  but 
the  principal  cementing  material  is  probably  lime,  produced  by 
the  accidental  reduction  of  limestones  in  the  great  fires.  The 
lime  thus  produced,  mixed  naturally  with  the  wood  ashes,  prob¬ 
ably  formed  the  cementing  ingredient.  In  one  of  the  limestone 
hearths  of  trench  d,  in  the  great  embankment,  Mr.  Volk  found 


and  ashes;  4,  Dark  earth;  5,  Brown  burnt  clay;  6,  Concrete;  7,  Alternate  layers  of 
pottery  vessels ;  11,  Small  altar;  12,  13,  Graves  beneath  concrete  layer;  14,  Intrusive  burials. 


many  of  the  stones  partly,  and  a  few  wholly,  reduced  to  lime  by 
the  intense  heat. 

The  work  of  exploration  was  begun  in  1882,  when  Professor 
Putnam  and  Dr.  Metz  cut  five  trenches  from  its  periphery  through 
to  the  center,  where  a  fireplace,  7  feet  in  diameter,  was  found  con¬ 
taining  four  pottery  vessels  (figure  13).  Mixed  with  the  ashes 
were  charcoal,  flint  flakes,  charred  corn  and  corn-cobs.  The  pot¬ 
tery  vessels  are  illustrated  in  plates  22,  g,  h,  i,  and  23.  At  the 
bottom  of  the  trench  in  the  southwestern  portion  of  the  mound, 
a  single  layer  of  round  flat  river  stones  was  found,  18  inches  wide, 
extending  4  feet  to  the  northwest  (number  15  of  figure  13).  The 
stones  were  carefully  placed,  and  overlapped  each  other  like  roof 
tiles.  Beneath  the  stones  was  a  layer  of  ashes  and  burnt  earth, 
the  ashes  6  inches  and  the  burnt  earth  4  inches  deep.  Fragments 
of  what  Dr.  Metz  thought  to  be  burnt  human  bones  were  found  on 
the  burnt  earth. 


30 


TURNER  GROUP  OF  EARTHWORKS 


In  1886,  the  work  of  exploration  was  again  taken  up,  and  com¬ 
pleted.  The  following  is  from  the  notebook  of  Dr.  Metz: 

Grave  1  was  under  the  layer  of  concrete,  length  8  feet  4  inches,  width  4  feet 
8  inches.  The  grave  contained  18  inches  of  gravel  resting  on  a  bed  of  bluish 
ashes,  If  inches  thick.  In  these  blue  ashes  were  two  lines  of  white  ashes,  2 
inches  wide,  and  extending  the  full  length  of  the  grave.  In  these  white  ashes, 
small  hard  concretions,  similar  to  the  white  substance  taken  from  the  flues 
under  mound  3,  were  found.  Beneath  the  ashes  was  a  layer  of  fine  gravel  and 
sand.  At  the  eastern  end  of  the  grave,  and  below  the  ashes,  a  stone  about  a 
foot  long  stood  upright.  At  the  opposite  end  were  five  similar  stones,  with 
their  upper  ends  just  protruding  through  the  ashes.  A  few  inches  from  the 
first  stone  lay  the  head  of  a  well-preserved  skeleton  of  an  adult  female.  At  its 
knees  rested  a  unio  shell  spoon.  To  the  right  was  the  skeleton  of  a  child.  Near 
its  head  lay  three  bone  awls,  a  bundle  of  bone  needles,  and  several  flaked  knives 
of  flint.  At  the  left  foot  was  a  unio  shell  filled  with  a  red  substance.  Several 
flaked  knives,  some  broken,  were  also  found  near  the  shell. 

A  little  to  the  west  of  this  double  burial,  and  above  the  layer  of 
concrete  forming  the  base  of  the  mound,  was  a  mass  of  clay  burned 
to  a  red  color,  having  the  form  of  a  truncated  pyramid  (number  9, 
figures  12  and  13).  It  was  12  inches  high,  its  base  and  top  meas¬ 
uring  5  feet  and  3  feet  respectively. 

Upon  this  lay  a  skeleton  in  flexed  position,  face  downward.  Around  the 
skeleton  and  covering  it  was  a  structure  of  worked  clay,  5  to  7  inches  thick. 
The  space  between  the  bones  and  clay  covering  was  filled  with  fine  soft  black 
earth,  from  which  the  bones  were  easily  separated.  Fragments  of  a  few  bone 
awls  were  taken  from  the  grave,  one  being  finely  ornamented. 


To  the  southeast  of  this  altar-like  structure,  and  beneath  the 
concrete  layer,  at  a  depth  of  nearly  7  feet  from  the  surface  of  the 
mound,  another  grave  was  found,  containing  a  single  skeleton 
(number  12).  It  lay  in  a  horizontal  position,  head  to  the  north¬ 
west,  the  left  arm  flexed  on  the  chest,  and  the  right  arm  flexed 
back  parallel  to  the  trunk. 

Still  farther  to  the  southeast,  at  a  distance  of  about  4  feet,  and 
also  beneath  the  concrete  layer,  lay  a  skeleton  in  a  horizontal 
position,  head  to  the  southeast  (number  13).  No  artifacts  were 
found  in  either  of  these  graves. 

Twelve  inches  west  from  the  central  stake,  and  beneath  the 
concrete  layer,  was  a  grave  containing  three  skeletons  of  adults 
(number  16).  The  following  description  is  by  Dr.  Metz: 


HAMILTON  COUNTY,  OHIO 


31 


The  grave  was  8  feet  long  and  4J  feet  wide,  and  extended  northwest  and 
southeast.  Depth  from  the  surface  of  the  mound  6  feet.  The  three  c-rania 
were  in  a  line,  and  about  a  foot  apart.  At  the  feet  of  the  skeleton  at  the  south¬ 
ern  side  of  the  grave,  lay  a  large  marine  shell  vessel,  several  shell  ornaments, 
and  large  pearls:  at  the  left  knee  rested  a  shell  spoon:  and  gripped  in  the  left 
hand  was  a  marine  shell,  cut  and  perforated,  probable  a  drinking  vessel  Iplate 
7,b]. 

Nothing  was  found  with  the  skeleton  in  the  middle  of  the  grave.  With  the 
third  skeleton  occupying  the  northern  side  of  the  grave  were  more  than  200 


Figvbe  13 

PlfiD  of  Mound  1:  9.  Altar  with  enclosed  skeleton:  11.  Small  altar:  1.  12,  13. 
16,  Graves  beneath  concrete:  15,  Stone-covered  space. 


pearl  beads,  and  a  stone  pipe  with  2  bowls.  The  latter  lay  near  the  right  knee, 
and  the  former  were  found  by  the  side  of  the  right  tibia,  [The  pipe  is  Illus¬ 
trated  in  figure  11,  a.] 

Four  intrusive  burials  of  later  Indians  were  encountered  near 
the  surface.  The  deepest  of  these  was  22  inches.  The  positions 
of  two  of  these  are  shown  in  number  14  of  the  cross-section. 

The  construction  of  the  mound  was  peculiar.  The  strata  of  the 
different  sections  varied  considerably,  and  only  three  of  the  layers 
extended  throughout  the  mound,  namely:  the  concrete  layer  near 


32 


TURNER  GROUP  OF  EARTHWORKS 


its  base;  the  brown  layer  just  above;  and  the  second  stratum  from 
the  top,  consisting  of  clay  mixed  with  sand  and  ashes. 

Only  four  post-holes  were  noticed.  These  were  beneath  the 
concrete  layer,  and  were  in  the  northwestern  section.  Certain 
portions  of  the  mound  consisted  of  refuse  material,  and  through¬ 


out  the  earthwork  were  many  animal  bones,  potsherds,  broken 
bone  awls,  flint  chips,  bits  of  mica,  and  pieces  of  burnt  clay. 

Three  feet  from  the  outer  side  of  the  low  outlining  wall  of  stone, 
and  to  the  northwest  of  the  mound,  was  a  small  altar  of  burnt 
clay,  8  inches  high,  3  feet  long,  and  2  feet  wide  (11). 

Mound  2.  This  stood  in  the  larger  of  the  two  earth  circles  within 
the  great  enclosure.  The  mound  was  30  feet  in  diameter,  and  2 
feet  high.  Excavations  revealed  two  hearths  of  burnt  clay.  Their 
positions  and  relative  size  are  shown  in  the  ground  plan,  figure  14. 
Nineteen  post-holes  were  located  and  accurately  plotted  by  tri- 
angulation,  a  method  unfortunately  not  followed  in  the  previous 


HAMILTON  COUNTY,  OHIO 


33 


work.  (This  was  one  of  the  last  mounds  of  the  group  to  be  ex¬ 
plored.)  Only  one  burial  was  found,  the  bones  being  badly  broken 
and  decayed. 

The  earth  circle  was  approximately  300  feet  in  diameter,  with 
opening  to  the  southeast.  It  was  accompanied  by  a  trench  upon 
its  inner  side,  which  had  been  partially  obliterated  by  cultivation. 
A  section  of  the  embankment  was  made  at  its  highest  point.  Its 
base  was  composed  of  three  or  four  layers  of  flat  river  stones 


Figure  15 

Plan  of  the  seven  connected  altar  mounds  within  the  Great  Enclosure,  showing  wall 
outlining  base  of  each. 


placed  one  above  the  other;  these  were  covered  with  a  low  em¬ 
bankment  of  gravel. 

Mound  3.  This  is  the  largest  of  the  seven  connected  mounds 
in  the  southeastern  portion  of  the  great  enclosure.  Each  mound 
of  this  sub-group  was  outlined  by  a  low  wall  of  stones,  as  indicated 
in  figure  15,  which  was  made  from  a  sketch  by  Dr.  Metz.  In  some 
instances,  the  outer  edge  of  a  layer  of  stones,  wholly  or  partially 
covering  a  mound,  joined  this  wall,  as  will  be  seen  by  referring 
to  the  various  cross-sections. 

Mound  3  measured  about  100  feet  in  diameter  at  its  base,  and 
14  feet  at  its  greatest  height.  Its  altitude  had  not  been  materially 
reduced  by  cultivation.  This  is  conclusively  shown  by  the  layer 
of  stones  which  covered  it  at  a  nearly  uniform  depth  of  20  to  24 
inches  beneath  its  surface,  as  indicated  in  the  cross-section, 


34 


TURNER  GROUP  OF  EARTHWORKS 


figure  16.  Over  the  central  part  of  the  mound,  a  second  layer  of 
stones  occupied  the  position  shown  in  the  cross-section. 

The  greater  portion  of  the  material  composing  the  mound  con¬ 
sisted  of  clay,  or  clay  mixed  with  gravel,  stratified  as  illustrated. 
Upon  removing  most  of  this,  a  layer  of  yellow  sandy  loam  (7),  3 
to  6  inches  thick,  with  a  sprinkling  of  gray  sand,  was  encountered 
resting  on  a  thin  stratum  of  yellow  clay.  This  covered  the  lower 
part  of  the  mound,  about  2  feet  above  its  base.  Underneath  this 
layer  of  yellow  clay  was  a  stratum  of  clay  mixed  with  charcoal, 
about  2  feet  in  thickness,  which  reached  to  a  layer  of  concrete  (8) 
covering  the  floor  of  the  structure. 

The  ground  plan  is  shown  in  figure  17.  A  wall  of  varying  width, 
about  2  feet  in  height  (excepting  upon  the  eastern  side),  built  of 


Figure  16.  Cross-section  of  Mound  3:  1,  Intrusive  burial;  2,  Intrusive  pit 
of  charcoal  and  ashes;  5,  Clay;  6,  Clay  and  gravel,  mixed;  7,  Yellow  clay  with 
with  tunnel  and  outer  pit;  12,  Layer  of  limestones;  28,  Pit  with  tunnel  and  flues; 

flat  river  stones,  formed  the  outline  of  the  base.  The  outer  edge 
of  the  layer  of  stones,  above  referred  to  as  covering  the  mound, 
joined  this  wall,  as  indicated  in  the  cross-section.  Bordering  the 
inner  edge  of  the  wall  and  forming  a  part  of  the  base  of  the  mound, 
was  a  circle  several  feet  in  width,  composed  of  loose  gravel.  The 
area  within  this  circle  consisted  of  a  layer  of  ashes  or  clay  showing 
the  action  of  fire  in  places. 

The  Enclosing  Wall.  The  low  wall,  from  the  inner  edge  of 
which  extended  the  layer  of  stones  covering  the  mound  about  20 
inches  below  its  surface,  was  built  of  ordinary  flat  stones  probably 
brought  from  the  shores  of  the  Little  Miami  River.  Its  base  was 
somewhat  below  the  level  of  the  surrounding  field. 

As  shown  in  the  ground  plan,  the  southeastern  portion  was 
carried  inward  until  it  reached  a  width  of  15  feet.  The  following 
description  is  from  Dr.  Metz’s  notes: 


HAMILTON  COUNTY,  OHIO 


35 


The  wall,  that  had  on  the  south  side  of  the  mound  a  uniform  height  of  2  feet 
and  a  width  at  its  base  of  4  feet,  acquired  a  width  of  15  feet  and  a  height  of 
.82  feet  on  its  eastern  side.  The  stones  of  which  the  wall  was  composed  were 
much  larger  than  those  used  on  the  west  and  southwest  sides  of  the  mound. 

Thirteen  feet  inward  from  the  edge  or  beginning  of  the  wall,  it  suddenly 
arched  over,  until  it  reached  a  height  of  .3 5  feet.  This  elevation  extended  20 
feet  along  the  wall,  and  was  2  feet  in  width.  When  the  stones  were  removed 
from  its  front  side,  an  oblong  oval-shaped  recess  was  discovered  [figure  16, 
10]  filled  with  irregular  layers  of  ashes,  sand,  and  clay  burned  red,  the  lower 
stratum  being  of  black  ashes  and  charcoal,  2  to  4  inches  in  thickness  and  18 
inches  in  width.  In  this  stratum  many  fragments  of  burnt  bone  were  found, 
and  resting  on  the  ashes  was  a  large  marine  shell  with  its  open  side  up,  and 
near  it  lay  several  fragments  of  copper  ear-ornaments,  numerous  shell  beads, 
and  a  carved  piece  of  deer  horn  representing  a  species  of  fish. 

The  cavity  in  which  these  were  found  was  30  inches  high,  2  feet  wide,  and 


containing  two  skeletons  and  sixteen  skulls;  3,  Top  soil;  4,  Clay  with  specks 
thin  covering  of  sand;  8,  Concrete;  9,  Post-holes;  10,  Place  of  cremation;  11,  Pit 
33,  Central  altar;  34,  Small  altar. 

10  feet  long.  The  layer  of  black  ashes  extended  eastward  10  feet  beyond  the 
arched  cavity,  into  and  between  the  layers  of  stone  forming  the  wall. 

The  floor  of  the  recess  was  composed  of  three  layers  of  large  flat  river  stones, 
the  top  layer  showing  marked  evidence  of  having  been  exposed  to  the  action 
of  fire.  The  lowest  of  the  three  layers  of  stone  which  formed  the  covering  of 
the  recess  was  much  burned,  and  the  middle  layer  also  showed  evidence  of 
direct  contact  with  the  fire.  No  flue  or  chimney  was  found  leading  from  this 
recess. 

Below  the  stone  floor  of  the  recess  was  a  bed  of  clay,  2  feet  wide,  and  15  feet 
in  length.  The  wall  extended  but  a  short  distance  beyond  the  recess  into  the 
mound. 

The  objects  taken  from  the  ashes  and  burnt  earth  which  filled 
the  recess  consisted  of  about  two  quarts  of  burnt  human  bones 
(plate  7,  d),  probably  the  cremated  remains  of  a  single  individual; 
a  large  vessel  made  of  the  shell  of  F ulgur  perversa ;  an  antler  effigy 
of  a  fish  having  the  tail  of  a  rattlesnake,  and  an  opening  beneath, 


36 


TURNER  GROUP  OF  EARTHWORKS 


into  which  probably  fitted  the  end  of  a  small  staff;  a  pair  of  copper 
ear-ornaments  of  joined  discs,  one  of  which  was  broken;  about 
two  hundred  shells  of  Marginella,  perforated  for  stringing;  twenty- 
seven  large  shell  beads  of  uniform  size;  and  a  few  small  shell  and 


Figure  17 

Plan  of  Mound  3:  1-6.  11.  12.  10.  28,  Pits  with  tunnels;  8.  Hearth  of  burnt  clay;  10,  Place 
of  cremation;  31,  Small  pit  with  flue;  32,  35.  Cache-pits;  33,  Central  Altar; 

34,  Small  altar;  36,  Post-holes. 


pearl  beads.  These  are  shown  in  d,  plate  6.  None  of  these  shows 
contact  with  fire. 

It  seems  certain  that  this  inner  extension  of  the  wall  was  built 
as  a  funeral  pyre.  First  a  platform  of  clay  was  made,  about  a  foot 
high,  upon  which  were  laid  three  layers  of  flat  stones.  Upon 
these,  the  wood  and  other  combustible  material  were  placed,  and 


HAMILTON  COUNTY,  OHIO 


37 


the  body  burned.  It  seems  that  before  the  fire  had  wholly  died 
down,  the  remains  were  covered  with  clay  and  sand,  over  which 
three  layers  of  limestones  were  placed. 

One  cannot  be  sure  that  this  was  not  a  place  of  general  crema¬ 
tion,  and  that  the  ashes  found  were  those  of  the  last  individual 
burned.  It  is  very  probable,  however,  that  only  one  body  was 
cremated  here,  evidently  the  remains  of  a  person  of  distinction. 

Pits  and  Tunnels.  Upon  removing  the  layer  of  concrete  which 
covered  a  large  part  of  the  floor  or  base  of  the  mound  just  above 
the  level  shown  in  the  ground  plan,  six  pits  (numbers  1  to  6,  figure 
17)  were  discovered  in  a  line  running  northwest  from  the  southern 
portion  of  the  mound;  and  beyond  them  a  hearth  or  layer  of 
burnt  clay  (8),  2  to  4  inches  thick,  was  encountered.  Portions  of 
this  layer  showed  excessive  burning.  Beneath  it  was  a  bed  of 
black  ashes.  Dr  Metz  writes: 

Just  beneath  the  layer  of  concrete  or  burned  gravel,  a  heavy  stratum  of 
burnt  earth  was  observed.  This  was  carefully  uncovered  and  proved  to  be  a 
hearth  of  semicircular  form,  conforming  lengthwise  to  the  curve  of  the  mound 
.  .  .  [number  8,  figure  17],  The  surface  was  burned  to  a  hard  red  brick,  3  to 
4  inches  in  depth,  beneath  which  was  a  layer  of  black  ashes,  3  inches  in  depth. 
Near  the  center  of  the  [western  section  of  the]  hearth  were  two  irregular  spaces 
where  the  burning  was  evidently  very  intense  and  continued,  the  surface  being 
a  bluish  gray,  very  hard  and  flinty.  Immediately  around  this  space  the  clay 
was  of  a  very  deep  red  color.  Six  concave  depressions  were  observed  extend¬ 
ing  partly  across  the  hearth,  8  feet  in  length,  16  inches  wide,  and  2  to  3  inches 
in  depth.  [Tunnels  were  afterward  found  beneath  these  depressions,  which 
were  apparently  the  result  of  the  settling  of  the  earth  above  them.] 

Rising  above  the  hearth  to  the  north  of  pits  5  and  6  were  three  cone-like 
elevations.  These  were  9  inches  in  height,  about  30  inches  in  diameter,  and 
showed  but  very  slight  burning.  At  the  apex  of  one,  two  round  openings,  2 
inches  in  diameter,  were  observed.  On  looking  into  these  openings,  a  pit 
partially  filled  with  earth  was  discovered. 

An  examination  of  the  hearth  was  made  by  cutting  a  trench  directly  across 
at  the  west  end  [near  pit  1],  including  one  of  the  depressions  on  the  surface. 
The  Space  between  the  encircling  stone  wall  and  the  edge  of  the  hearth  was 
filled  with  black  ashes  and  loose  soil,  to  a  depth  of  2  feet.  Four  inches  to  the 
southwest  of  the  depression  on  the  hearth  was  the  inner  edge  of  pit  1,  30  inches 
in  depth  and  18  inches  in  diameter,  containing  ashes  and  coarse  charcoal,  its 
bottom  showing  marked  evidence  of  the  action  of  fire,  being  burned  hard  and 
red. 

On  cutting  down  the  edge  of  the  hearth  by  the  side  of  pit  1,  a  singularly - 
shaped  arched  opening  of  a  tunnel  was  revealed  beneath  the  depression  in  the 
hearth.  This  tunnel  was  12  inches  wide,  11  inches  high,  and  8  feet,  7  inches  in 


38 


TURNER  GROUP  OF  EARTHWORKS 


length.  [See  longitudinal-section,  figure  IS,  b.]  Its  floor  was  covered  with 
pure  white  ashes,  2  to  3  inches  in  depth,  containing  small  fragments  of  bone. 
On  removing  the  ashes,  the  floor  was  found  to  be  of  yellow  clay,  showing  no 
evidence  of  the  action  of  fire.  The  bottom  or  floor  of  the  tunnel  was  a  concave 
depression,  occupying  almost  the  entire  width  of  the  tunnel  at  its  mouth,  and 


Mound  3.  Cross-sections  of  pits  and  tunnels:  a,  Small  pit  (31)  and  flues;  6,  Stone  covering 
flue;  f',  Clay  cone;  b,  Pit  and  Tunnel  28;  c,  Pit  6,  and  connecting  tunnel;  g',  Layer  of  burnt 
clay  covering  thin  stratum  of  black  ashes;  f',  Clay  cones  covering  top  of  pits;  i',  Layer  of 
ashes  mixed  with  carbonate  and  phosphate  of  lime. 


gradually  narrowing  until  it  terminated  in  a  circular  concave  basin  2  or  3 
inches  deep  at  the  rear  end.  From  this  depression  or  basin,  two  chimneys 
passed  upward,  terminating  just  under  the  burnt  surface  of  the  hearth.  These 
chimneys  were  25  inches  in  length,  with  a  diameter  of  2  inches.  On  their  inner 
surface  we  noticed  ashes,  and  the  indication  that  heat  and  smoke  probably  at 
one  time  passed  through  them. 

The  tunnel  contained  only  the  ashes  that  covered  the  floor,  and  it  sloped 


Peabody  Museum  Papers 


Vol.  VIII,  No.  3,  Plate  8 


Mound  3  partially  explored,  showing  Central  Altar  (in  middle  distance  marked  by  hatchet) ; 
the  pit  in  front  of  Tunnel  12  (with  handle  of  shovel),  and  cross-section  of  the  tunnel;  also 
outer  pit  of  Tunnel  11  (with  shovel  and  pick),  and  opening  into  its  inner  pit. 


HAMILTON  COUNTY,  OHIO  39 

downward  in  the  direction  of  the  center  of  the  mound,  being  8  inches  lower  at 
its  inner  end. 

In  making  a  longitudinal-section  of  the  hearth  from  northwest  to  southeast, 
5  additional  tunnels  were  found.  Numbers  2  and  3  presented  exactly  the  same 
condition  as  number  1,  and  had  similar  contents.  Tunnels  4,  5,  and  6  were 


Mound  3.  Cross-sections  of  pits  and  tunnels:  a,  Pit  5;  b,  Pit  16;  c',  Outer  pit;  d',  Tunnel; 
6,  Inner  pit;  f',  Clay  cap;  g',  Burnt  clay,  covering  thin  stratum  of  black  ashes. 


filled  with  loose  black  earth.  Number  4  sloped  deeper  than  the  others,  the 
flues  or  chimneys  being  8  inches  apart,  3  inches  in  diameter,  and  27  inches  in 
length.  A  small  quantity  of  ashes  was  found  on  the  floors  of  these  tunnels. 
Tunnels  5  and  6  each  terminated  at  its  northern  end,  in  a  pit  resembling 
somewhat  the  ash-pits  of  Ferris  Woods.  They  were,  however,  each  covered 
with  a  hood  of  clay  showing  evidences  of  having  come  in  contact  with  fire  at 
their  tops. 


40 


TURNER  GROUP  OF  EARTHWORKS 


In  front  of  each  of  tunnels  2-6,  at  the  southern  end,  a  pit  was  discovered 
similar  to  the  one  found  in  front  of  tunnel  1.  The  tops  of  these  pits  were  level 
with  the  bottom  of  the  opening  of  the  tunnels. 

Tunnel  5  terminated  at  its  northern  end  in  a  pit  44  feet  deep,  which  was 
filled  to  a  depth  of  21  inches  with  ashes,  gravel,  several  hard  lumps  of  earth 
and  ashes,  and  a  few  flakes  of  mica,  the  remaining  portion  being  empty  [figure 
19,  a]. 

Tunnel  6  terminated  at  its  northern  end  in  a  double  pit  [figure  18,  c],  the 
first  being  6  feet  in  depth  and  14  inches  in  diameter.  This  contained  ashes, 
sand,  black  friable  soil,  and  a  fragment  of  pottery.  This  pit  was  connected  on 
its  northern  side  with  one  deeper  and  larger,  its  dimensions  being  as  follows: 
depth,  9  feet;  greatest  width,  4  feet.  A  flue,  2  inches  in  diameter,  and  37 
inches  in  length,  extended  from  its  northern  side,  at  a  point  3  feet  from  its 
top,  obliquely  to  the  hearth  above.  The  pit  was  nearly  filled  with  ashes, 
sand,  charcoal,  and  several  pieces  of  hard  burnt  clay. 

Ten  feet  northwest  from  the  west  end  of  the  hearth,  a  cone-like  elevation 
was  found  [number  31,  figure  17,  and  a,  figure  18],  in  the  apex  of  which  was  a 
circular  opening  4  inches  across.  This  cone  was  10  inches  in  height  with  a 
diameter  of  13  inches  at  its  base.  The  opening  or  flue  extended  downward  26 
inches  into  a  small  pit,  11  inches  in  depth,  and  15  inches  in  diameter.  About 
a  foot  from  the  base  of  the  cone,  and  on  the  same  level,  a  flat  stone  was  found 
covering  a  second  flue,  4  inches  in  diameter,  which  extended  obliquely  down¬ 
ward,  connecting  with  the  small  pit.  This  flue  contained  sand,  ashes,  and 
black  earth. 

In  the  space  between  the  hearth  and  enclosing  wall,  and  below  the  black 
soil  and  ashes,  numerous  little  pits  were  found,  5  to  7  feet  apart,  following  the 
course  of  the  mound.  A  similar  pit  was  discovered  at  the  outer  edge  of  the 
hearth  between  the  larger  pits  in  front  of  the  tunnels.  These  small  pits  were 
2  to  3  feet  in  depth,  and  12  to  16  inches  across,  and  contained  fine  sand  and 
loose  friable  black  earth.  .  .  .  Many  small  pits  look  as  though  great  timbers 
had  once  been  set  in  them,  and  that  the  fine  friable  brown  and  black  earth  was 
decayed  wood. 

These  smaller  pits  were  probably  post-holes,  and  as  the  work 
continued  they  were  found  to  be  distributed  over  a  considerable 
portion  of  the  area  covered  by  the  mound. 

Continuing  excavations  north  and  east,  the  area  of  burnt  clay 
(number  8,  figure  17),  called  by  Dr.  Metz  ‘  the  hearth,’  was  found 
to  continue  in  a  northeasterly  direction,  and  a  number  of  tunnels 
and  large  pits  of  the  same  nature  as  the  ones  already  described 
were  discovered  beneath  it.  Similar  pits  and  tunnels  occurred 
also  in  the  northern  and  northwestern  portion  of  the  base  of  the 
mound,  their  distribution  being  indicated  in  the  ground  plan. 

The  majority  of  the  tunnels  and  connected  pits  were  of  the  type 
illustrated  in  figure  18,  b,  and  although  there  was  some  variance 


Peabody  Museum  Papers 


Vol.  VIII,  No.  3,  Plate  9 


a,  Altar  5,  Trench  a,  embankment  of  the  Great  Enclosure;  b,  Mound  3,  longitudinal-sec¬ 
tion  of  Tunnel  28,  and  one  of  its  flues;  c,  Mound  3,  section  of  Tunnel  16,  its  outer  pit 
(with  handle  of  shovel),  and  opening  into  large  inner  pit. 


HAMILTON  COUNTY,  OHIO 


41 


in  the  length  of  tunnels,  they  nearly  all  terminated  in  two  or  three 
flues  extending  upward  at  the  end  opposite  to  that  at  which  the 
pit  was  situated.  The  diameters  of  the  flues  ranged  from  2  to  4 
inches.  Only  one  of  these  flues  is  shown  in  the  longitudinal- 
section,  b. 

While  many  of  the  upright  flues  were  round  in  cross-section, 
some  were  nearly  triangular,  one  of  the  sides  being  curved.  It  is 
very  apparent  that,  in  their  construction,  the  clay  or  earth  was 
pressed  around  a  stick,  planted  in  the  proper  position,  which  was 
afterward  withdrawn.  Those  approaching  the  triangular  form 
were  the  result  of  using  for  this  purpose  a  section  of  a  small  log 
which  had  been  split  into  four  or  more  pieces. 

According  to  Dr.  Metz : 

The  clay  composing  the  inner  surface  of  the  sides  and  roof  of.  the  tunnels  is 
very  dry  and  friable,  and  does  not  show  any  signs  whatever  of  having  come 
directly  in  contact  with  fire.  It  seems  as  if  the  heat  had  been  conducted  through 
the  tunnel  to  the  flues  at  the  back  of  each  of  them.  In  the  flues  no  traces  of 
fire  can  be  found,  except  a  very  little  white  ashes  adhering  on  the  sides.  In 
the  pits  directly  in  front  of  the  tunnels,  coarse  charcoal  and  ashes  are  found 
in  abundance,  the  bottom  of  the  pits  being  burned  red  and  hard,  also  the  sides 
part  way  up.  Was  the  heat  from  these  pits  conducted  through  the  tunnels, 
and  in  what  manner? 

Longitudinal-sections  of  tunnels  1 1  and  28  are  shown  in  relation 
to  the  upper  portion  of  the  mound  in  figure  16.  Plate  8  shows 
the  pit  (with  handle  of  shovel)  in  front  of  tunnel  12,  with  cross- 
section  of  the  tunnel  beyond  it;  also  the  outer  pit  of  tunnel  11 
(near  pickax  and  shovel),  with  an  opening  into  the  large  pit  at  its 
opposite  end.  Beyond  this,  in  the  middle  distance,  is  the  central 
altar  marked  by  the  hatchet. 

A  longitudinal-section  of  pits  and  tunnel  16  is  given  in  figure  19, 
b,  from  Professor  Putnam’s  drawing  made  June  2,  1884;  and  a 
photograph  is  reproduced  on  plate  9,  c,  showing  a  longitudinal- 
section  of  a  part  of  the  tunnel,  the  relative  position  of  the  smaller 
outer  pit,  and  the  opening  made  by  the  explorers  into  the  larger 
pit,  which  contained  a  small  quantity  of  charcoal  only.  Plate  9,  b, 
gives  an  excellent  longitudinal-section  of  tunnel  28  and  one  of  the 
flues,  looking  north. 

Pit  32,  to  the  northeast  of  the  central  altar,  was  not  connected 
with  a  tunnel.  Dr.  Metz  writes: 


42 


TURNER  GROUP  OF  EARTHWORKS 


On  Friday,  the  13th  instant,  we  discovered  another  covered  pit,  9  feet  8 
inches  northeast  from  the  altar  stake.  This  pit  was  3  feet  in  diameter,  7  feet 
deep  below  the  concrete,  and  14  inches  above  the  gravel  to  the  top  of  the  clay 
hood.  This  pit  seemingly  was  lined  with  a  row  of  thirty  stakes,  placed  about 
4  inches  apart.  They  were  7  feet  long,  and  apparently  had  been  pressed  into 
the  clay  of  the  sides  while  it  was  quite  soft.  The  impressions  left  in  the  clay 
lining  are  2  to  3  inches  wide  and  about  the  same  depth,  and  were  filled  with 
brown  masses  resembling  decayed  wood.  This  brown  substance  on  being 
disturbed  revealed  fragments  of  wood.  In  the  bottom  of  the  pit  a  considerable 
amount  of  this  substance,  also  ashes  and  charcoal,  were  found. 

Ten  inches  from  the  northeast  side  of  the  pit  was  a  flue,  3  feet  long,  and  2 
inches  in  diameter.  No  connection  between  the  two  could  be  observed.  In 
making  an  excavation  to  ascertain  the  depth  and  direction  of  this,  a  good  sec¬ 
tion  was  obtained  showing  the  manner  in  which  the  pit  was  probably  con¬ 
structed.  It  seems  that  an  excavation  had  been  made  in  the  earth,  which  was 
lined  witli  clay  to  a  thickness  of  4  to  6  inches,  and  while  yet  soft,  stakes  were 
pressed  into  it  so  as  to  retain  the  clay  in  place.  In  the  bottom  of  the  pit  a 
grinding  stone  or  mortar,  about  18  inches  long,  was  found,  covered  with  sand 
ar.d  gravel. 

It  seems  that  this  pit,  and  also  number  35,  must  have  been  used 
for  the  storage  of  property.  They  had  no  connection  with  tunnels, 
and  no  indication  of  contact  with  fire.  The  upright  hole,  3  feet 
in  length  and  2  inches  in  diameter,  found  10  inches  from  number 
32,  apparently  had  no  connection  with  the  pit.  This  pit  was 
covered  with  a  clay  cone,  14  inches  in  height  at  its  center. 

In  a  brief  notice  of  the  exploration  of  this  mound  by  Professor 
Putnam,1  he  says  that  at  the  further  (inner)  ends  of  some  of  the 
tunnels  the  walls  were  covered  with  a  thin  glossjr  incrustation, 
evidently  formed  by  the  condensation  of  vapors.  He  also  records  in 
his  notes  that  in  some  instances  there  was  a  hard  lime-like  lining 
on  the  bottom  and  sides  of  the  tunnel.  About  a  half  bushel  of 
“  ashes  ”  from  the  different  tunnels  was  sent  to  the  Museum.  In 
the  ashes  are  many  irregular  white  porous  masses  of  various  sizes, 
up  to  two  inches  or  more  in  length,  which  are  fragments  of  the 
deposit  from  the  floor  or  sides.  Some  of  these  have  somewhat  the 
appearance  of  bone  nearly  consumed  by  fire,  and  were  thought 
by  Dr.  Metz  to  be  such.  A  chemical  analysis  made  under  the 
direction  of  Professor  Baxter  shows  them  to  be  composed  princi¬ 
pally  of  carbonate  and  phosphate  of  lime. 

Of  the  twenty-three  tunnels  of  the  type  shown  in  figure  18,  b, 
there  are  careful  detail  drawings  of  only  a  few,  but  there  seems  to 

1  Reports  of  the  Peabody  Museum,  Harvard  University,  Vol.  Ill,  p.  340. 


HAMILTON  COUNTY,  OHIO 


43 


have  been  little  variation  in  form  or  dimensions  among  them. 
Numbers  2  and  3  presented  “  exactly  the  same  conditions  ”  as 
number  1.  In  number  4,  the  tunnel  had  a  greater  slope,  and  the 
flues  were  three  inches  in  diameter  instead  of  two.  Possibly  the 
larger  size  of  the  flues  in  this  example  was  made  necessary  by  the 
greater  slope  of  the  tunnel. 

By  referring  to  the  ground  plan  it  will  be  seen  that  the  burnt 
clay  hearth  in  the  southern  half  of  the  area  covered  sixteen  of  the 
thirty  tunnels.  So  far  as  recorded,  the  upper  opening  of  the  flues 
terminated  at  the  top  of  a  layer  of  black  ashes  just  below  the  bot¬ 
tom  of  this  layer  of  burnt  clay.  This  seems  to  indicate  that  the 
clay  layer  was  deposited  and  burned,  after  the  use  of  the  tunnels 
had  been  discontinued. 

The  flue  leading  from  the  large  pit  of  number  6  (figure  18,  c,  k') 
also  terminated  beneath  the  burnt  clay  layer,  and  the  cone-shaped 
clay  caps  of  numbers  5  and  6  rested  upon  the  ashes  beneath  the 
hearth,  which  also  seems  to  indicate  that  the  latter  was  of  sub¬ 
sequent  construction,  and  may  have  had  no  direct  connection  with 
the  function  of  the  tunnels  below.  At  any  rate,  it  seems  improb¬ 
able,  with  the  outlet  of  the  flues  of  the  tunnels  closed  with  a  com¬ 
pact  and  continuous  layer  of  hard  burnt  clay,  that  they  would 
be  in  working  condition. 

The  earth  below  the  base  of  the  mound  is  composed  of  a  layer  of 
dark  clay  of  considerable  thickness,  resting  upon  a  gravel  bed.  In 
this  clay  the  tunnels  and  connecting  pits  were  constructed,  some 
of  the  larger  pits  extending  through  the  clay  layer  into  the  gravel. 

At  the  time  of  the  use  of  these  pits  a  building  of  some  kind  un¬ 
doubtedly  occupied  the  site,  as  is  indicated  by  the  many  post- 
holes  found  throughout  the  area.  Unfortunately  the  method  of 
locating  these  holes  was  not  very  accurate,  and  it  is  possible  that 
some  of  the  less  conspicuous  ones  were  not  noticed. 

A  casual  glance  at  the  ground  plan,  figure  17,  gives  the  impres¬ 
sion  that  the  tunnels  are  earth  moulds  left  by  fallen  and  decayed 
timbers  which  originally  formed  the  main  rafters  of  a  building, 
and  that  the  pits  at  the  outer  end  of  each  originally  held  a  substan¬ 
tial  supporting  post.  A  careful  examination  of  the  numerous 
notes,  sketches,  plans,  and  photographs,  made  during  the  explora¬ 
tion,  however,  does  not  substantiate  this  impression.  The  curious 
upright  flues  at  the  inner  end  of  each  of  the  tunnels  not  connected 


44 


TURNER  GROUP  OF  EARTHWORKS 


with  an  inner  pit,  the  careful  junction  with  the  inner  pit  of  each 
tunnel  so  connected,  and  the  uniform  position  of  the  outer  openings 
of  the  tunnels  above  the  outer  pits,  seem  to  indicate  beyond  doubt 
that  they  were  planned  and  built  in  the  position  they  now  occupy. 
If  the  large  inner  pits  of  numbers  5,  6,  11,  and  16  were  for  cache 
purposes,  of  what  use  were  the  tunnels  and  flues  connected  with 
them? 

Pits  with  somewhat  similar  arrangement  of  flues  as  shown  in 
figure  18,  c,  k',  but  without  tunnels,  were  found  by  Mr.  Guernsey 
in  a  Basket-maker  cave  during  the  exploration  in  Arizona  by  the 
Museum,  and  are  figured  in  the  report.1  These  are  thought  to  be 
for  storage,  as  no  signs  of  fire  having  been  in  them  were  noticed. 
Dr.  Hough  figures  a  large  pit,  6  feet  deep,  also  supplied  with  a 
Hue.2 3  This  was  built  by  the  Hopi  Indians  for  roasting  corn. 

In  a  letter  to  the  writer,  Dr.  Hough  gives  the  following  explana¬ 
tion  of  the  use  of  this  Hue: 

The  flue  running  diagonally  from  the  corn  pit  among  the  Hopi  Indians  is 
for  the  purpose  of  allowing  a  draft  when  the  pit  is  first  heated.  A  hole  is  dug 
in  rather  good  solid  ground,  the  flue  is  driven  into  it,  and  the  pit  is  filled  with 
firewopd,  ignited,  and  kept  burning  for  a  considerable  while  until  it  is  believed 
to  be  hot  enough.  There  is  very  little  charcoal  in  the  wood  used  so  that  at 
the  bottom  of  the  pit  when  the  fire  is  out,  there  is  merely  a  mass  of  ashes. 
Cornstalks  and  shucks  are  thrown  in  on  this  and  then  a  layer  of  ears  of  corn, 
filling  the  pit,  which  is  closed  over  with  cornstalks  and  earth,  and  in  many  cases 
a  fire  is  made  on  top  of  this.  The  flue  is  closed  at  the  same  time.  The  corn  re¬ 
mains  in  this  pit  generally  overnight,  when  the  contents  are  taken  out  with 
great  rejoicing.  When  the  pits  are  opened  a  tremendous  amount  of  steam 
rises  in  the  air  to  the  height  of  about  100  feet. 

While  it  is  possible  that  pits  of  the  type  of  5  and  6  may  have 
been  used  for  a  purpose  similar  to  the  above,  it  seems  doubtful  if 
the  tunnels  terminating  in  small  upright  flues,  and  not  connected 
with  large  pits,  were  used  in  food  preparation. 

Further  exploration  of  similar  remains  will  be  necessary  before 
definite  conclusions  can  be  drawn. 

The  Altars.  The  central  altar,  from  which  the  remarkable  col¬ 
lection  of  artifacts  was  taken,  was  situated  in  the  middle  of  this 


i  Guernsey  and  Kidder,  Basket-maker  Cares  in  Northeastern  Arizona,  Papers  of  Peabody 

Museum  of  Am.  Arch,  and  Eth.,  Vol.  VIII,  No.  2,  p.  19.  plates  9,  d,  14,  a. 

3  Walter  Hough,  Hopi  Indian  Collection  in  V.  S.  Nat.  Mus.,  Proceedings  of  U.  S.  Nat. 
Museum,  Vol.  54,  fig.  3. 


Peabody  Museum  Papers 


Vol.  VIII,  No.  3,  Plate  10 


From  the  Central  jAltar  of  Mound  3:  Objects  wrought  from  native  copper.  (1/3.) 


HAMILTON  COUNTY,  OHIO 


45 


area;  see  number  33,  figures  16  and  17;  in  plate  8,  the  hatchet 
in  the  middle  distance  lies  in  the  basin  of  the  altar.  The  basin 
was  nearly  rectangular  in  form,  with  the  corners  rounded  and  pro¬ 
jecting  somewhat  beyond  the  line  of  the  sides,  and  measured  a 
little  over  5  feet  diagonally  from  corner  to  corner.  It  was  made 
by  digging  a  cavity  of  the  proper  dimensions  in  the  floor,  and 
lining  it  with  clay.  From  about  the  level  of  the  floor,  its  sides 
sloped  inward  10  inches  to  its  bottom,  which  was  about  7  inches 
below  the  level  of  the  field.  Its  sides  and  upper  edge  were  burned 
a  brick  red  to  a  depth  of  1^  inches,  and  its  bottom  to  a  depth  of 
4  inches.  About  10  inches  below  the  floor  of  the  altar  was  another 
layer  of  burnt  clay,  probably  the  remains  of  an  earlier  altar.  The 
space  around  the  altar  also  showed  the  action  of  fire.  A  few  feet 
to  the  northwest,  a  second  and  much  smaller  altar  was  found  (34 
of  plan  and  section),  its  basin  being  filled  with  ashes  in  which  were 
charcoal,  fragments  of  burnt  bone,  and  a  few  potsherds. 

North  of  the  central  altar  was  a  refuse  pile  of  ashes  mixed  with 
broken  animal  bones,  potsherds,  and  other  waste  material.  Just 
above  the  stones  which  covered  the  altar  was  a  layer  of  concrete, 
2  to  4  inches  thick,  extending  over  the  altar,  and  covering  the 
greater  portion  of  the  floor  of  the  mound.  It  seems  that  this  con¬ 
crete  layer  was  spread  over  the  covered  contents  of  the  altar  and 
the  floor  of  the  original  structure,  when  the  use  of  the  structure 
was  discontinued.  This  layer  evidently  formed  the  first  stage  of 
the  mound  proper,  as  nothing  of  special  interest  was  found  above 
it  excepting  the  intrusive  burials,  to  be  described  later. 

Dr.  Metz  gives  an  account  of  the  discovery  of  the  central  altar 
in  the  following  words: 

Nothing  of  importance  occurred  until  the  layer  of  hard  gravel  or  concrete 
near  the  bottom  of  the  mound  was  reached  and  gone  through,  when  a  layer  of 
loose  stone  was  encountered,  beneath  which  was  a  stratum  of  fine  clean  sand. 
Projecting  from  under  the  sand  was  the  margin  of  a  large  sheet  of  mica.  Upon 
removing  a  little  of  the  sand,  a  perforated  sheet  of  copper  was  seen  resting 
upon  the  mica.  .  .  .  The  next  morning,  Mr.  Low  and  I  commenced  the  in¬ 
vestigation  of  the  find,  which  proved  to  be  an  altar  containing  beads  in  great 
quantity,  copper  ornaments,  mica  ornaments,  etc.  Placed  over  the  whole 
were  three  large  sheets  of  mica. 

The  altar  was  quadrangular  in  form,  the  corners  conforming  to  the  cardinal 
points  of  the  compass.  Many  of  the  pearl  and  bone  beads  and  other  objects 
were  more  or  less  calcined  and  mixed  with  ashes.  The  larger  ornaments  were 
arranged  in  three  distinct  heaps,  each  heap  being  covered  by  a  large  sheet  of 


46 


TURNER  GROUP  OF  EARTHWORKS 


mica,  while  the  smaller  beads  were  arranged  around  and  between  the  heaps, 
the  whole  being  covered  with  a  layer  of  clear,  clean  sand,  4  inches  thick,  and 
having  upon  its  upper  surface  a  peculiar  pinkish  red  stain  evidently  derived 
from  the  layer  of  flat  river  stones  which  covered  it,  and  which  also  showed 
the  stain. 

Mr.  E.  F.  Low,  who  was  with  Dr.  Metz  at  the  time  the  objects 
were  removed  from  the  altar,  in  a  letter  to  Professor  Putnam,  gives 
a  few  additional  details: 

Having  removed  the  earth  we  discovered  a  large  sheet  of  mica,  and  great 
pains  were  taken  to  get  it  out  whole.  While  excavating  above  it,  the  copper 
object  [plate  10,  e]  was  taken  out,  and  the  sand  was  filled  with  glittering  pearl 
beads  which  rolled  out  in  great  quantities.  It  was  a  sight  to  see  Dr.  Metz 
scooping  them  up  in  great  double  handfuls,  filling  box  after  box.  ...  I 
noticed  that  in  the  center  where  the  coals  and  ashes  were  thickest  and  black¬ 
est  that  many  of  the  teeth  and  shell  beads  were  calcined,  as  though  they  had 
been  deposited  before  the  fire  was  wholly  extinguished,  and  while  the  embers 
were  still  hot. 

Contents  of  the  Central  Altar.  The  following  objects  were  taken 
from  this  altar:  35  small  nuggets  of  native  copper,  some  of  them 
hammered;  28  symbols  or  ornaments  wrought  from  copper;  50 
copper  spool-shaped  ear-ornaments,  some  covered  with  thin  sheets 
of  meteoric  iron  or  silver;  3  copper  bracelets,  one  of  which  is 
covered  with  thin  silver;  a  copper  adze  blade;  700  copper  beads 
of  various  forms;  several  copper  or  meteoric  iron-covered  clay 
buttons,  pierced  near  the  bottom  for  attachment;  copper-covered 
beads  of  wood;  several  small  nuggets  of  meteoric  iron,  and  numer¬ 
ous  beads  and  other  ornaments  wrought  from  this  metal;  small 
sheets  of  gold,  each  hammered  from  a  small  nugget;  3  large  crystals 
of  mica  cut  to  irregular  ovals;  about  50  ornaments  or  ceremonial 
objects  cut  from  thin  mica,  some  of  which  are  painted;  the  re¬ 
mains  of  several  large  vessels  made  from  busycon  shells;  about 
600  phalanges  of  small  animals;  artificial  canine  teeth  of  the  bear 
made  from  shell;  4500  shell  beads  of  various  forms,  some  of  them 
large;  500  marginella  shells  perforated  for  suspension;  17,000 
embroidery  shells  ( Leptoxis )  with  one  side  ground  away  for  the 
passage  of  cord  for  fastening  them  to  the  fabric  or  dressed  skin; 
36,000  pearl  beads  of  all  sizes,  from  less  than  |  of  an  inch  to  \\ 
inches  in  diameter;  12,000  pearls,  unperforated;  36  or  more 
canine  teeth  of  the  bear,  perforated  for  attachment;  12  alligator 


Peabody  Museum  Papers 


Vol.  VIII,  No.  3,  Plate  11 


From  the  Central  Altar  of  Mound  3:  Objects  wrought  from  native  copper.  (1/3.) 


Peabody  Museum  Papers 


Vol.  VIII,  No.  3,  Plate  12 


From  the  Central  Altar  of  Mound  3:  a,  Pendants  of  native  copper;  b,  Native  copperheads; 
c,  Ear  pendants  of  native  copper,  a  few  being  overlaid  with  native  silver;  d,  Shell  beads;  e, 
Canine  teeth  of  small  mammals,  perforated;  f,  Canine  teeth  of  the  bear,  perforated.  (1/4.) 


HAMILTON  COUNTY,  OHIO 


47 


teeth;  2000  canine  teeth  of  small  mammals,  perforated  for  sus¬ 
pension;  600  unworked  phalanges  of  small  mammals;  34  cones 
or  tinklers  made  from  the  tips  of  deer  antler;  27  chipped  blades, 
11  of  which  are  of  obsidian;  11  ceremonial  spear  points  or  blades 
made  of  micaceous  schist;  3  terra-cotta  ear-ornaments;  2  elabo¬ 
rately  incised  discs  of  bone;  and  a  tortoise  shell  spatula-like  ob¬ 
ject.  Most  of  the  above  were  in  a  fair  state  of  preservation,  although 
many  were  discolored  by  smoke,  or  partially  destroyed  by  fire. 
In  addition  to  these  there  were  thousands  of  fragments  of  various 
objects  which  had  been  destroyed  by  fire.  The  numbers  given  for 
pearl  beads,  embroidery  shells,  and  similar  objects,  are  estimates 
only,  made,  for  example,  by  counting  the  number  of  specimens  in 
a  fraction  of  a  pint,  and  measuring  the  total  amount  of  each  group. 
The  different  groups  of  the  above  objects  will  be  described  in 
detail. 

Copper  Objects.  The  specimen  illustrated  in  plate  10,  e,  which 
is  probably  a  conventionalized  eye,  was  apparently  the  last  to  be 
deposited  on  the  altar,  as  it  was  found  just  above  the  three  large 
crystals  of  mica  placed  over  the  contents  of  the  altar.  Like  the 
other  specimens  upon  plates  10  and  11,  it  is  made  from  a  thin 
sheet,  which  was  prepared  by  hammering,  annealing,  and  grind¬ 
ing  a  piece  of  nearly  pure  native  copper  to  the  proper  thickness. 
It  was  cut  into  the  desired  form,  probably  with  sharp  flints, the 
edges  being  finished  afterward  by  grinding.  The  writer’s  experi¬ 
ments  in  copper  working  with  primitive  tools  show  that  the  more 
elaborate  artifacts  of  copper  were  probably  produced  in  this 
manner.1  Several  of  the  more  advanced  prehistoric  tribes  within 
the  limits  of  the  United  States  had  become  very  skilful  workers  in 
this  metal. 

Most  of  the  pieces  illustrated  are  of  nearly  pure  copper,  but 
some  of  the  larger  and  coarser  objects  from  the  Ohio  mounds  were 
probably  made  of  copper  containing  a  certain  percentage  of  arsenic. 
This  is  not  easily  wrought,  and  has  to  be  repeatedly  annealed; 
but  for  certain  tools,  such  as  drills,  adze  and  axe  blades,  it  is 
probably  superior,  for  after  being  hammered  it  is  harder  and  re¬ 
tains  its  cutting  edge  longer  than  the  purer  metal.  Some  varieties, 
such  as  algodonite,  are  wrought  with  great  difficulty.  Numerous 

1  C.  C.  Willoughby,  Primitive  Metal  Working ,  American  Anthropologist,  n.  s.,  Vol.  V,  1903, 
p.  55. 


48 


TURNER  GROUP  OF  EARTHWORKS 


nuggets  of  this  form  of  copper  were  obtained  from  the  deposits  in 
the  Hopewell  Group  of  mounds,  and  a  few  pieces  apparently  of  this 
variety  were  taken  from  the  altar  of  mound  4  of  the  group  under 
consideration. 

What  seems  to  be  a  frontal  ornament  for  a  head-dress  is  shown 
on  plate  10,  g.  Two  of  these,  one  of  which  was  doubled  together 
twice  before  being  placed  on  the  altar,  were  found.  The  small 
plate  or  gorget  illustrated  in  plate  10,  a,  is  a  type  not  uncommon 
in  the  graves  of  the  Great  Earthwork  Builders.  They  are  usually 
considerably  larger,  however,  than  this  example.  A  better  speci¬ 
men  accompanied  a  skeleton  at  the  base  of  Marriott  mound  1, 
just  west  of  the  elevated  circle.  The  objects  shown  in  a,  plate  11, 


Cross-section  through  copper  ear-ornaments.  In  t he  common  type  (at  the  left),  two  double 
clisos  are  held  together  by  a  piece  of  thin  copper  rolled  into  a  hollow  rivet,  and  are  held  apart 
by  winding  the  rivet  with  twine,  e.  In  the  other  example,  the  rivet,  c,  is  held  securely  by  a  clay 
filling,  f.  Both  forms  are  sometimes  covered  with  an  additional  exterior  plate  of  fine  copper, 
silver,  or  meteoric  iron.  (1/1.) 

evidently  represent  the  four  horns  of  the  serpent  or  serpent- 
monster,  as  will  be  apparent  upon  comparison  with  those  figured 
in  1),  plate  1!).  They  were  probably  attached  to  the  object  of 
which  they  formed  a  part  by  a  projection  at  the  base  of  each,  only 
one  of  which  now  remains.  Upon  the  breaking  away  of  the  pro¬ 
jection  in  two  of  the  specimens,  the  horns  were  evidently  attached 
by  means  of  the  perforations. 

The  two  perforated  discs  with  scalloped  outer  edges  (c)  are 
probably  eyes  of  the  same  serpent  effigy,  the  body  of  which  was 
doubtless  destroyed  by  fire.  Somewhat  similar  eyes  with  undulat¬ 
ing  rays  instead  of  scallops  appear  upon  an  exquisitely  carved 
stone  head  of  a  fawn  (?)  illustrated  by  Squier  and  Davis  (figure 
163). 

The  crescent-shaped  object  (b)  is  probably  a  gorget.  A  number 
of  these  have  been  taken  from  mounds  and  graves  of  this  culture 
group.  Seventeen  copper  pendants,  thirteen  of  which  are  illus¬ 
trated  in  this  plate,  were  found  together. 


HAMILTON  COUNTY,  OHIO 


49 


Three  copper  bracelets  are  shown  in  the  upper  part  of  plate  10. 
One  of  these  (d)  was  twisted  out  of  shape  before  being  deposited. 
Each  bracelet  is  hollow,  with  an  opening  on  the  inner  side,  a  cross- 
section  through  its  wall  being  C-shaped.  The  surface  of  b,  has 
been  injured  by  corrosion,  and  fragments  of  carbonized  shell, 
bone,  etc.,  adhere  to  it.  The  bracelet  illustrated  in  c,  is  covered 
with  very  thin  beaten  silver. 

The  only  copper  implement  from  this  deposit  is  the  adze  blade, 
f,  plate  10.  The  better  preserved  of  the  copper  spool-shaped  ear- 
ornaments  from  this  altar  are  illustrated  on  plate  12,  c.  A  very 
small  one,  probably  made  for  a  child,  is  shown  at  the  extreme  right. 
Many  fragments  were  also  recovered.  The  general  method  of 
construction  may  be  seen  by  referring  to  figure  20.  This  form  of 
ornament  was  very  popular  among  the  Indians  of  this  culture 
group.  They  were  found  in  many  of  the  graves  and  mounds,  and 
more  than  five  hundred  were  taken  from  one  of  the  altars  of  the 
Hopewell  Group  of  mounds  in  Ross  County  by  Mr.  Moorehead. 
In  three  or  four  of  those  shown  in  c,  of  the  above  plate,  the  outer 
discs  are  covered  with  thin  sheets  of  silver.  A  few  are  covered 
with  sheets  of  meteoric  iron. 

Dr.  Hildreth  found  a  similar  silver-covered  ear-ornament  with 
a  skeleton  in  one  of  the  mounds  at  Marietta  in  1819,  and  mistook 
it  for  a  part  of  an  European  sword  belt  or  buckler.  He  also  found 
with  it  a  corrugated  ornament  of  silver,  of  the  type  shown  in 
figure  21,  which  he  thought  to  be  part  of  a  sword  scabbard.  These 
specimens  are  responsible  for  the  alleged  recent  origin  of  some  of 
the  mounds  of  the  Marietta  Group,  as  asserted  by  several  well- 
known  archaeologists.  The  specimens  found  by  Hildreth  1  are 
now  in  the  Peabody  Museum,  and  are  unquestionably  of  pre¬ 
historic  Indian  origin. 

The  hollow  cone-shaped  objects  shown  in  plate  12,  a,  made  by 
rolling  together  thin  sheets  of  copper,  were  probably  pendants. 
Objects  of  similar  shape  and  size  produced  by  cutting  away  the 
interior  of  the  tips  of  deer  antler  were  also  taken  from  the  altar. 
Smaller  pendants  of  tin  of  the  same  nature  were  used  by  historic 
tribes  over  a  wide  area,  as  ornaments  for  clothing,  bags,  etc.  The 

1  Calib  Atwater,  Description  of  the  Antiquities  Discovered  in  the  State  of  Ohio ,  Transactions 
and  Collections  of  the  American  Antiquarian  Society,  Vol.  I,  p.  168.  Professor  Putnam  was 
the  fi  st  to  call  attention  to  the  true  nature  of  these  objects;  see  note,  Reports  of  Peabody 
Museum  of  Am.  Arch,  and  Eth.,  Vol.  Ill,  p.  172. 


50 


TURNER  GROUP  OF  EARTHWORKS 


smaller  end  is  attached  to  a  thong,  and  a  bunch  of  hair,  often  dyed 
a  brilliant  color,  usually  projects  from  the  larger  end. 

The  majority  of  the  copper  beads  were  of  the  type  and  size 
shown  in  b,  of  the  above  plate.  About  one  hundred  and  fifty  small 
tubular  beads  made  by  rolling  up  thin  sheets,  and  a  dozen  large 
hollow  beads  of  the  form  illustrated  in  plate  10,  h,  were  also  found. 
A  few  copper-covered  wooden  beads  (i)  were  recovered,  together 
with  a  number  of  hemispherical  clay  buttons,  also  covered  with 
thin  copper  (figure  25,  a-c).  It  is  generally  conceded  that  most 
of  the  copper  used  by  the  Great  Earthwork  Builders  of  southern 
Ohio  came  from  the  mines  on  the  southern  shore  of  Lake  Superior. 
Several  nuggets  of  copper,  a  few  of  them  showing  signs  of  having 
been  hammered,  were  taken  from  this  altar,  but  they  were  all 
small,  the  largest  weighing  only  two  ounces. 

Meteoric  Iron  Objects.1  Very  few  artifacts  of  this  metal  were 
recovered  from  the  altar  of  mound  3.  There  were  several  small 
nuggets  unworked  or  slightly  hammered,  and  fragments  of  what 
may  have  been  a  head-plate  of  the  type  occasionally  found  in  the 
Ohio  mounds.  These  head-plates  are  usually  2  to  3  inches  wide, 
and  10  to  12  inches  long,  curved  and  rounded  to  fit  the  crown. 
There  also  are  pieces  of  hollow  beads  similar  to  those  of  copper 
already  described,  and  several  copper  ear-ornaments  of  the  usual 
form  covered  with  thin  sheets  of  meteoric  iron. 

The  best  preserved  object  of  this  metal  is  made  of  a  thin  sheet 
about  31  inches  square,  bent  into  the  shape  shown  in  figure  21. 
One  side  is  corrugated,  and  the  other  flat.  A  number  of  similar 
specimens  have  been  taken  from  the  mounds  of  this  culture  group, 
made  of  silver,  copper,  and  meteoric  iron.  The  one  of  silver,  found 
by  Dr.  Hildreth  in  a  mound  at  Marietta  and  mistaken  for  a  part 
of  an  European  sword  scabbard,  is  the  most  noted  of  these. 
There  is  a  well-preserved  example  in  the  Museum  from  central 
Tennessee,  from  a  mound  belonging  to  this  culture.  It  was  ac¬ 
companied  by  a  copper  adze  blade,  spool-shaped  ear-ornaments, 
and  mica  plates.  This  Tennessee  specimen  had  originally  sur¬ 
rounded  what  appears  to  have  been  three  tubes  of  cane  or  reed, 
fragments  of  which  have  been  preserved  by  copper  salts.  It  is 

1  For  an  analysis  of  the  meteoric  iron  objects  fiom  the  altars  of  this  mound  group  see  Leon¬ 
ard  P.  Kinnicutt,  Report  on  the  Meteoric  Iron  from  the  Altar  Mounds  in  the  Little  Miami  Valley, 
Ohio,  Reports  of  the  Peabody  Museum  of  Am.  Arch,  and  Eth.,  Vol.  Ill,  pp.  381-384. 


Peabody  Museum  Papers 


Vol.  VIII,  No.  3,  Plate  13 


From  the  Central  Altar  of  Mound  3:  a,  Pearls,  perforated  for  stringing;  b,  Native  gold, 
hammered  into  sheets  from  small  nuggets,  f  1/1.1 


HAMILTON  COUNTY,  OHIO 


51 


probable  that  each  of  the  specimens  above  mentioned  served  to 
bind  together  three  similar  tubes.  These  tubes  must  have  been 
usually  about  \  inch  in  diameter;  but  in  one  example  in  the 
Museum,  a  silver  band  from  a  mound  at  Grand  Rapids,  a  north¬ 
ern  outpost  of  this  culture,  the  tubes  were  probably  about  the 
size  of  an  ordinary  lead  pencil.  Perhaps  the  tubes  may  have 
been  whistles  of  different  notes  joined  together  into  a  single 
instrument. 

Nearly  all  of  the  artifacts  of  meteoric  iron  from  the  mounds  are 
badly  oxidized,  and  more  or  less  broken.  This  metal,  when  worked 


Figure  21 

From  the  Central  Altar  of  Mound  3:  Meteoric  iron  band  corrugated  upon 
one  side.  (Nearly  full  size.) 

into  ornaments,  does  not  have  the  lasting  quality  of  copper  or 
silver.  Objects  made  of  it,  however,  were  originally  very  attrac¬ 
tive,  as  the  iron,  which  contains  more  or  less  nickel,  resembles 
polished  steel  when  finished.  Further  notes  in  connection  with 
this  metal  will  be  found  on  page  65. 

Silver  Objects.  No  specimens  made  entirely  of  silver  were  re¬ 
covered  from  this  altar.  A  few  ear-ornaments,  a  bracelet,  and  a 
cone-shaped  tinkler,  all  of  copper,  were  overlaid  with  thin  silver 
sheets.  Two  of  the  former  have  been  referred  to  (plate  12,  c), 
and  the  bracelet  is  shown  in  plate  10,  c.  Among  the  debris  of 
broken  and  burnt  objects  were  many  fragments  of  this  thinly 
hammered  overlay,  evidently  from  various  articles  which  had  been 
destroyed. 

No  silver  nuggets  or  partially  worked  pieces  were  found  in  any 
of  the  Turner  Group  mounds,  but  the  Museum  has  two  large 
nuggets  of  unworked  silver,  weighing  together  12f  pounds,  from 


52 


TURNER  GROUP  OF  EARTHWORKS 


one  of  the  mounds  at  Grand  Rapids.  The  source  of  most  of  the 
silver  from  the  mounds  of  the  Great  Earthwork  Builders  is  prob¬ 
ably  the  copper  region  of  Lake  Superior. 

Gold  Objects.  Fifteen  sheets  of  gold,  each  hammered  from  a  small 
nugget,  were  taken  from  this  altar.  Fourteen  of  these  are  illus¬ 
trated  on  plate  13,  b,  and  the  remaining  one  is  shown  adhering 
to  the  copper  pendant,  d,  plate  11.  This  adhesion  is  the  result  of 
corrosion.  The  gold  did  not  form  a  part  of  the  pendant.  The 
piece  shown  in  the  center  of  the  former  illustration  is  concavo- 
convex,  and  is  perforated.  Its  form  would  indicate  that  it  possibly 
may  have  been  fastened  to  one  of  the  discs  of  an  ear-ornament. 
The  remaining  pieces,  although  hammered  to  thin  sheets,  do  not 
seem  to  have  been  cut  or  otherwise  worked.  They  were  probably 
prized  for  their  rarity.  In  this  connection  it  may  be  well  to  quote 
from  a  letter  of  Dr.  Hildreth  to  the  President  of  the  American 
Antiquarian  Society,  dated  November  3,  1819, 1  which  evidently 
refers  to  one  of  the  ear-ornaments  so  often  found  in  or  near  the 
hands  of  skeletons.  This  report  was  traced  to  its  source  by  Squier 
and  Davis  (page  279),  and  the  ornament  found  to  be  copper. 

I  also  have  been  told  on  good  authority  that  an  ornament  composed  of  very 
pure  gold  something  similar  to  those  found  here,  was  discovered  a  few  years 
since  in  Ross  County,  near  Chillicothe,  lying  in  the  palm  of  a  skeleton’s  hand 
in  a  small  mound.  This  curiosity  I  am  told  is  in  the  [Peal]  Museum  at  Phila¬ 
delphia. 


Atwater 2  also  says,  “  gold  ornaments  are  said  to  have  been  found 
in  several  tumuli,  but  I  have  never  seen  any.” 

Such  objects  must  have  been  extremely  rare,  for  the  remarkable 
collection  from  the  Hopewell  Group  of  mounds  contained  no  arti¬ 
facts  of  this  metal.  If  gold  objects  were  in  use,  one  would  expect 
to  find  only  small  articles,  such  as  clay  buttons,  wooden  beads,  or 
perhaps  an  occasional  ear-ornament,  covered  with  thin  sheets 
hammered  from  small  nuggets. 

Pearls.  On  plate  14,  d,  and  e,  are  shown  twenty-three  pounds 
of  pearls  taken  from  this  altar.  These  two  piles  contain  approxi¬ 
mately  thirty-six  thousand.  In  addition  to  these  were  several 
thousand  which  had  been  destroyed  by  the  altar  fire,  and  most 
of  those  recovered  were  blackened  or  discolored  by  the  heat  and 


1  Atwater,  op.  cit.,  p.  176. 


5  Ibid.,  p.  223. 


Peabody  Museum  Papers 


Vol.  VIII,  No.  3,  Plate  14  J 


From  the  Central  Altar  of  Mound  3:  a,  Massive  shell  beads;  b,  Marginella  shells  perforated 
for  stringing;  c,  Leptoxis  shells  ground  for  embroidery;  d,  Pearls;  c,  Pearls  perforated  for 
stringing.  (About  1/4.) 


HAMILTON  COUNTY,  OHIO 


53 


confined  smoke.  The  pearls  shown  in  the  lower  pile,  e,  are  per¬ 
forated,  and  were  used  as  beads;  those  in  the  upper  pile,  d,  are 
without  perforations.  A  selection  of  some  of  the  larger  beads  are 
illustrated  in  plate  13,  a.  It  is  probable  that  most,  if  not  all,  of 
the  pearls  from  this  altar  were  derived  from  various  species  of  the 
Unio  which  were  common  in  the  fresh  water  streams  of  the  South 
and  West. 

Pearls  were  found  with  several  skeletons  in  the  graves  and 
mounds  of  this  group,  and  a  few  were  taken  from  two  of  the  other 
altars.  They  were  used  for  necklaces,  bracelets,  and  probably 
for  bead  embroidery.  They  were  employed  as  eyes  for  various 
effigies,  and  were  inlaid  in  bear  teeth  toggles,  stone  tobacco  pipes, 
and  ornaments  of  shell.  By  far  the  greater  number  had  a  single 
perforation,  and  the  surface  was  otherwise  unworked.  Fre¬ 
quently,  however,  and  especially  when  used  as  an  inlay  or  button, 
one  side  of  a  large  pearl  would  be  ground  flat,  or  nearly  so,  and 
the  perforations  made  by  drilling  two  holes  diagonally  inward 
from  the  base  until  the  holes  met  in  the  center,  as  shown  in  the 
third  pearl  from  the  left  m  the  lower  row,  plate  13,  a.  In  this  way, 
the  attaching  cord  would  not  be  visible  when  the  pearl  was  in 
place. 

Two  other  large  deposits  of  pearls  were  obtained  from  the 
Hopewell  Group  by  Mr.  Moorehead,  in  1890.  Approximately 
nineteen  thousand  were  taken  from  altar  1  of  the  great  mound, 
and  about  sixteen  thousand  from  an  extensive  deposit  of  objects 
above  two  skeletons  in  the  same  tumulus. 

Pearls  were  highly  prized  and  eagerly  sought  by  the  more  ad¬ 
vanced  tribes  of  the  eastern  and  central  portions  of  the  United 
States.  In  a  Fidalgo  of  Elvas  narrative  of  De  Soto’s  expedition, 
he  tells  us  that  upon  the  arrival  of  the  Spaniards  at  Cutifachiqui, 
a  town  on  the  Savannah  River,  Georgia: 

The  Cacica,  observing  that  the  Christians  valued  pearls,  told  the  Governor 
that,  if  he  should  order  some  sepulchres  that  were  in  the  town  to  be  searched, 
he  would  find  many;  and  if  he  chose  to  send  to  those  in  the  uninhabited  towns, 
he  might  load  all  his  horses  with  them.  They  examined  those  in  the  town  and 
found  three  hundred  and  fifty  pounds  weight  of  pearls,  and  figures  of  babies 
and  birds  made  of  them.1 

1  Narratives  of  the  Career  of  Hernando  de  Soto,  Edward  Gaylord  Bourne  Edition,  Vol.  I, 

p.  66. 


54 


TURNER  GROUP  OF  EARTHWORKS 


The  “  figures  of  babies  and  birds  ”  were  probably  embroidered 
upon  fabric  or  buckskin. 

At  Mauilla,  a  town  in  southern  Alabama,  the  pearls  which  had 
been  collected  by  De  Soto  from  the  Indians  were  destroyed  when 
the  village  was  burned.  When  the  Governor  learned  that  Mal¬ 
donado  was  waiting  for  him  at  the  post  of  Ochuse,  he  caused 
Ortiz  to  keep  the  news  secret,  because  the  pearls  which  he  wished 
to  send  to  Cuba,  that  their  fame  might  raise  the  desire  of  coming 
to  Florida,  had  been  lost.1 

There  are  many  references,  by  early  writers,  to  the  pearls  found 
in  possession  of  the  Indians.  Strachey  writes  of  having  seen 


Figure  22 

From  the  Central  Altar  of  Mound  3:  Shell  beads  of  various  forms.  (Nearly  full  size.) 


“  manie  chaynes  and  bracelet ts  ”  of  pearls  worn  by  the  Virginia 
Indians;  and  “  wee  found  plentie  of  them  in  the  sepulchres  of 
their  kings  though  discoloured  by  burning  the  oysters  in  the  fier, 
and  deformed  by  gross  boring.”  2  Numerous  other  references 
might  be  quoted,  but  the  above  are  sufficient  to  show  how  highly 
the  Indians  valued  these  beautiful  objects. 

Shell  Beads.  Nearly  five  thousand  shell  beads  were  taken  from 
the  altar.  They  ranged  from  small  discs,  about  |  of  an  inch  in 
diameter,  to  those  of  globular  or  oval  shape,  approximately  an 
inch  in  length,  as  illustrated  in  a,  plate  14.  On  plate  12,  d,  are 
shown  about  two  thousand  of  the  ordinary  form.  Nearly  an  equal 
number,  barrel-shaped,  and  somewhat  larger,  were  also  recovered. 
The  various  shapes  and  sizes  of  shell  beads  from  this  altar  are 
shown  in  figure  22. 

1  Ibid.,  pp.  97-98. 

2  William  Strachey.  .4  History  of  Travail  into  Virginia  Britannia,  Hakluyt  Society. 


HAMILTON  COUNTY,  OHIO 


55 


A  group  of  marginella  shells  with  the  apex  ground  away  for  the 
passage  of  a  cord  is  illustrated  in  plate  14,  b. 

Embroidery  Shells.  Approximately  seventeen  thousand  fresh 
water  shells  ( Leptoxis  carinata),  about  a  third  of  which  are  illus¬ 
trated  on  plate  14,  c,  were  recovered.  Each  of  these  is  ground 
upon  the  side  having  the  aperture,  until  the  wall  of  the  whorl 
above  the  aperture  is  perforated.  This  allows  the  thread  used  in 
attaching  the  shell  to  the  fabric  to  pass  through  the  perforation 
and  out  of  the  aperture;  the  ground  side  of  the  shell  is  in  this 
way  brought  snugly  against  the  fabric  or  buckskin  to  which  it 
is  fastened. 

The  best  example  of  shell  embroidery  of  this  nature  known  to 
the  writer  is  the  so-called  Powhatan  mantle  entered,  about  1685, 
in  the  manuscript  catalogue  of  the  Ashmolean  Museum,  in  the 
handwriting  of  Dr.  Plot,  and  which  is  illustrated  on  plate  xv  of 
the  Tenth  Volume  of  the  Bureau  of  American  Ethnology.  Ac¬ 
cording  to  Dr.  Taylor’s  description,  thirty-three  of  the  thirty- 
four  figures  still  remaining  on  this  garment  are  made  with  beads 
ground  as  above  described,  although  of  a  different  species  of  shell. 

Canine  Teeth.  The  canine  teeth  of  various  animals  were  highly 
prized  as  ornaments  by  many  Indian  tribes,  and  a  large  number 
were  obtained  from  this  altar.  A  group  of  the  best  preserved 
teeth  of  the  bear  is  illustrated  in  plate  12,  f.  These  are  black 
with  the  confined  smoke  of  the  altar  fire,  and  many  others  were 
destroyed  by  burning. 

Most  of  these  large  teeth  were  perforated  by  drilling  two  holes 
upon  one  side,  at  an  angle  to  each  other,  until  they  met  near  the 
center  of  the  tooth.  Through  this  angular  perforation,  the  cord 
or  thong  which  fastened  the  tooth  to  the  garment  doubtless  passed. 
They  were  probably  used  as  ornaments  or  toggles,  and  where 
found  in  graves  were  usually  in  one  or  more  pairs,  as  will  be  seen 
by  referring  to  plate  6.  Sometimes  they  have  an  additional  lateral 
perforation  near  the  root  end,  and  some  are  without  the  diagonal 
drilling.  A  few  neatly  cut  bear  teeth  were  also  taken  from  the 
altar,  two  of  which  have  holes  for  a  pearl  inset.  Several  artificial 
bear  teeth  made  of  shell,  and  one  or  two  of  bone,  were  also  re¬ 
covered. 

A  large  number  of  the  canine  teeth  of  small  mammals,  per¬ 
forated  near  the  root  end,  for  use  as  ornaments  or  for  stringing  as 


56 


TURNER  GROUP  OF  EARTHWORKS 


necklaces,  are  shown  in  e,  of  the  above  plate.  Among  the  various 
animals  represented  are  the  dog,  fox,  raccoon,  bay  lynx,  badger, 
and  opossum. 

Mica  Objects.  In  addition  to  the  three  large  crystals  of  mica 
which  capped  this  sacrificial  deposit,  there  were  many  ornaments 
or  ceremonial  objects  cut  from  thin  sheets  of  this  mineral.  The 
more  important  of  these  are  illustrated  on  plate  15.  There  were 
two  grotesque  human  heads,  one  of  which  is  shown  in  c.  These 
are  duplicates  of  each  other,  both  in  outline,  and  in  the  incised 
lines  upon  the  surface  which  indicate  the  hair,  the  eyebrow,  the 
lips,  and  the  circle  about  the  eye.  At  least  a  portion  of  the  profile 
was  painted,  for  traces  of  red  paint  still  adhere  to  the  neck.  There 
are  four  or  five  small  perforations  along  the  upper  lip,  as  though 
something  had  been  sewed  to  the  effigy  at  his  point. 

There  are  five  representations  of  the  upper  portion  of  a  bear, 
three  of  which  are  shown  in  the  plate.  These  are  excellent  ex¬ 
amples  of  the  artistic  skill  of  this  people.  The  accuracy  of  the 
outline  of  the  head  and  back  is  remarkable.  In  addition  to  the 
incised  lines  which  mark  the  designs,  portions  of  the  surface  of 
each  of  these  effigies  are  painted  with  a  dark  red  pigment.  There 
were  fifteen  of  the  designs  figured  in  b,  which  represent  a  conven¬ 
tionalized  bird  upon  or  against  a  long  and  narrow  background. 
Some  of  these,  while  reproducing  the  same  design,  are  not  exact 
duplicates  of  each  other.  Portions  of  the  wing  and  lower  part  of 
the  bird  are  indicated  by  incised  lines,  and  certain  parts  are  painted 
red . 

In  addition  to  the  above  are  several  discs,  some  of  which  have 
a  hole  in  the  center.  A  few  of  these  have  concentric  circles  in  in¬ 
cised  lines,  and  traces  of  what  appears  to  be  white  pigment. 
Many  pieces  of  narrow  serpentine  figures  were  also  recovered,  and 
several  hundred  fragments  of  other  designs,  destroyed  beyond  the 
possibility  of  restoration. 

Mica  was  highly  valued  by  the  Great  Earthwork  Builders.  It 
was  probably  obtained  by  them  from  the  Indians  of  Virginia  and 
North  Carolina,  where  it  was  quarried  in  prehistoric  times. 

Incised  Drawings.  Among  the  most  remarkable  specimens 
from  the  altars  and  graves  of  the  Great  Earthwork  Builders  are 
the  incised  designs  upon  bone,  some  of  which  have  already  been 
described  (see  plate  2). 


Peabody  Museum  Papers 


Vol.  VIII,  No.  3,  Plate  15 


From  the  Central  Altar  of  Mound  3:  Effigies,  rings,  and  discs  cut  from  mica,  some  of 
which  are  painted.  (1/3.) 


/ 


HAMILTON  COUNTY,  OHIO 


57 


Figures  23  and  24  illustrate  two  of  these  from  the  altar  under 
consideration.  The  discs  are  cut  from  the  parietal  bones  of  a 
human  skull.  Like  all  work  of  this  class  its  technical  quality  is 
excellent.  The  lines  are  clear-cut  and  uniform,  and  the  work  is 
carried  out  with  great  precision. 

These  discs  were  broken  into  many  pieces,  and  partially  de¬ 
stroyed  by  burning,  but  practically  the  whole  design  of  each  can 


Figure  23 

From  the  Central  Altar  of  Mound  3:  Disc  cut  from  the  parietal  bone 
of  a  human  skull,  and  ornamented  with  bird  forms  in 
incised  lines.  (2/3.) 

be  made  out,  for  it  is  the  same  in  both,  although  reversed.  A 
composite  bird  is  represented.  The  main  or  central  portion  is 
doubtless  intended  for  an  owl,  as  it  has  the  usual  ear  tufts  and 
large  legs,  each  of  the  latter  terminating  in  four  claws,  character¬ 
istic  of  this  bird.  Near  the  edge  of  each  disc  is  the  well-drawn 
head  and  shoulder  of  a  crested  bird  whose  wings,  with  convention¬ 
alized  feathers,  extend  upward  and  across  the  upper  half  of  the 
disc.  Upon  the  opposite  side  of  each  is  another  bird’s  head,  which 
seems  to  form  a  part  of  the  leg  or  wing  of  the  central  figure.  Two 


58 


TURNER  GROUP  OF  EARTHWORKS 


large  eye-like  designs  with  angular  arms  are  in  the  upper  half  of 
each  disc. 

A  few  fragments  of  other  carvings  of  a  similar  nature  were  found 
among  the  ashes  of  the  altar.  There  was  also  a  spatula-like  object 
of  tortoise  shell  about  8  inches  long,  If  inches  wide  near  its  broader 
end,  and  tapering  to  f  of  an  inch  at  the  opposite  extremity.  The 
broader  end  is  neatly  rounded,  and  upon  one  side  has  been  incised 


Figure  24 

From  the  Central  Altar  of  Mound  3:  Disc  cut  from  the  parietal  bone 
of  a  human  skull  and  ornamented  with  the  same  design  as 
figure  2.3,  but  reversed.  (2/3.) 

a  well-executed  scroll.  The  greater  portion  of  the  unit  of  the  design 
is  repeated  once.  Unfortunately,  the  surface  of  the  tortoise  shell 
is  so  disintegrated  that  the  lines  of  the  design  cannot  be  followed 
with  accuracy,  and  a  satisfactory  drawing  cannot  be  made. 

Stone  Implements.  Comparatively  few  stone  implements  were 
taken  from  the  altar.  Six  broken  flint  blades,  5  or  6  inches  in 
length,  of  ordinary  workmanship;  about  a  dozen  perfect  knife 
blades  of  obsidian  and  flint,  five  of  which  are  shown  on  plate  16, 


Peabody  Museum  Papers 


Vol.  VIII,  No.  3,  Plate  16 


From  the  Central  Altar  of  Mound  3:  a,  Knife  blades  of  flint  and  obsidian;  b,  Ceremonial 
blades  (?)  of  micaceous  schist.  (2/5.) 


HAMILTON  COUNTY,  OHIO  59 

a;  and  many  fragments  of  similar  blades,  broken  by  the  fire, 
were  recovered. 

Eleven  imitation  chipped  blades  or  spear  points,  made  of  mica¬ 
ceous  schist,  were  also  taken  from  the  altar,  eight  of  which  are  shown 
on  the  above  plate.  The  lower  portion  of  most  of  these  is  perfo¬ 
rated  for  attachment.  It  is  possible  that  they  may  have  been  used 
as  pendants,  but,  in  the  opinion  of  the  writer,  it  seems  more  prob¬ 
able  that  they  are  ceremonial  spear  points.  The  surface  of  each 
appears  to  be  ground  in  imitation  of  the  facets  upon  chipped  blades. 

Miscellaneous  Objects.  Only  a  few  remaining  objects  from  this 
altar  are  worthy  of  special  mention.  Among  them  are  two  large 


Figure  25 


a-d,  Copper-covered  buttons;  e,  f,  Sandstone  forms  for  covering  with  metal: 
a-c,  e,  f,  Altar  of  Mound  3;  d,  Mound  4.  (About  1/2.) 


hemispherical  button-like  objects  of  sandstone,  which  are  illus¬ 
trated  in  figure  25,  e,  f .  The  metal  coverings  of  both  are  missing. 
One  of  the  specimens,  f,  is  perforated  near  its  base  for  the  passage 
of  a  cord.  This  perforation  is  above  its  center,  evidently  for  the 
purpose  of  allowing  the  ornament  to  hang  properly  when  attached 
to  the  garment,  or  when  suspended  against  the  body.  The  second 
example,  e,  is  grooved  at  one  side  of  the  center  for  the  same  purpose. 
The  metal  plate  which  covered  its  base  held  the  cord  in  place.  A 
third  and  complete  example  is  illustrated  in  d.  This  was  found 
during  the  excavation  of  mound  4.  It  is  covered  with  thin  copper 
plates,  the  edges  of  the  outer  plate  overlapping  those  of  the  under 


60 


TURNER  GROUP  OF  EARTHWORKS 


one.  Similar  examples  from  the  Hopewell  Group  are  covered 
with  sheets  of  native  silver. 

There  are  three  terra-cotta  rings  grooved  at  the  outer  edge, 
which  were  probably  used  as  ear-ornaments.  Two  of  them  are  of 
the  same  type,  but  are  not  mates,  one  being  larger  and  more  crudely 
made  than  the  other.  The  better  example  of  the  two  is  illustrated 
in  figure  26,  a.  Several  beautifully  formed  rings  of  this  type,  made 
from  the  brown  micaceous  schist  called  “  gold  stone  ”  by  Squier 
and  Davis,  were  taken  from  an  altar  of  the  Hopewell  Group,  and 
are  now  in  the  Field  Museum.  The  largest  of  these  is  about  21 
inches  in  diameter.  Similar  rings  were  also  found  by  the  above 
explorers.  These  stone  rings  are  among  the  most  interesting 
objects  from  the  mounds.  Technically  they  are  perfect;  their 
outlines  form  true  circles,  and  their  surfaces  are  exactly  symmetri¬ 
cal.  They  could  not  have  been  made  without  some  mechanical 
device  based  upon  the  principle  of  the  lathe.1  The  terra-cotta 
rings,  however,  are  modeled  by  hand,  and  afterward  baked.  Like 
some  of  the  stone  rings,  the  one  illustrated  (a)  is  perforated  later¬ 
ally  by  eight  holes  arranged  in  four  pairs.  It  is  not  improbable 
that  these  perforations  were  used  for  attaching  feathers  or  other 
ornaments  placed  within  or  hanging  from  the  central  opening. 
The  third  terra-cotta  ring  from  this  altar  is  shown  in  b,  the  only 
one  of  this  type  recovered. 

Several  fossils  were  taken  also  from  the  altar,  and  were  probably 
used  as  fetishes.  They  are  duplicates  of  those  from  the  altar  of 
mound  4  which  are  illustrated  in  d,  plate  17.  There  were  also 
many  fragments  of  shell  vessels,  bone  and  shell  rings,  and  other 
objects  destroyed  by  breaking  or  burning. 

Intrusive  Pit.  This  was  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  mound  (2, 
figure  16),  and  had  been  dug  to  the  depth  of  7  feet.  The  clay 
filling  was  like  the  upper  strata  of  the  mound,  but  the  layers  of 
stone  had  been  removed.  A  coating  of  ash-like  substance  covered 
the  bottom  of  the  pit,  and  extended  3  feet  up  its  sides.  The  ex¬ 
tended  skeletons  of  a  man  and  a  woman  lay  upon  the  bottom  near 
its  center.  Covering  their  tibiae  were  ashes  containing  bits  of 
burnt  bone,  both  human  and  animal.  Near  the  skeletons  was  a 
Hat-  stone  upon  which  rested  a  rounded  sheet  of  mica  about  12 
inches  across.  About  the  two  skeletons  were  sixteen  crania  of 


1  Willoughby,  op.  cil.,  Holmes  Anniversary  Volume,  plate  12. 


HAMILTON  COUNTY,  OHIO 


61 


men  arranged  at  regular  intervals.  Two  or  three  other  fragments 
were  also  recovered,  one  of  which  was  part  of  an  infant’s  skull. 
When  found,  the  settling  of  the  superincumbent  mass  of  clay  had 
broken,  and  misplaced  some  of  the  bones. 

The  sixteen  skulls  were  unaccompanied  by  other  bones.  They 
were  probably  family  relics,  connected  with  or  belonging  to  the 
man  whose  skeleton  occupied  the  center  of  the  grave.  Thirteen 
of  them  have  superficial  scratches  or  cuts  on  their  surface,  appar¬ 
ently  made  with  flint  knives  in  the  process  of  removing  the  flesh. 
Some  of  the  skulls  had  been  painted  red,  and  red  ocher  still  adheres 
to  the  surface  of  six.  It  is  more  common  on  the  forehead,  facial 


Figure  26 

Terra-cotta  rings,  probably  ear-ornaments:  a,  b,  Altar  of  Mound  3;  c.  Ash-bed, 

Trench  a,  embankment  of  the  Great  Enclosure.  (1/2.) 

bones,  and  jaw,  but  in  one  skull  it  occurs  about  the  base  as  well, 
and  in  this  and  one  other  on  the  temporal  fossa.  Five  of  the  skulls 
have  one  to  four  perforations,  about  f  inch  in  diameter,  in  the 
vault  of  the  cranium.  The  sixth  example  has  eleven  perforations, 
and  another  apparently  started.  This  skull  is  shown  in  plate  27 
together  with  one  having  two  perforations.1  The  position  of  the 
holes  seems  to  indicate  that  at  least  a  part  of  them  were  intended 
for  the  passage  of  a  suspending  cord.  Others  may  have  been  used 
for  the  insertion  of  feathers  or  other  decorations. 

During  the  exploration  of  Marriott  mound  1,  to  the  west  of  the 
elevated  circle  (see  page  88),  a  skull  was  found  occupying  a  small 
stone-lined  grave,  and  unaccompanied  by  other  bones.  This  was 
perforated  near  the  great  foramen,  probably  for  the  passage  of  a 
suspending  cord. 

Bones  coated  with  red  pigment  are  reported  from  Ohio  by  W. 
K.  Moorehead  as  follows:  from  a  mound  at  Omega,  Ross  County; 
from  a  Jackson  County  mound;  from  two  mounds  within  the 


The  above  description  is  from  the  manuscript  notes  of  Cornelia  Studley. 


62 


TURNER  GROUP  OF  EARTHWORKS 


corporate  limits  of  Chillicothe;  and  from  a  stone-lined  grave  in 
Marion  County.1 

The  following  account  from  Romans  of  bone  painting  among 
the  Choctaw  throws  an  interesting  sidelight  upon  these  remains.2 

The  day  [of  the  burial]  being  come,  the  friends  and  relations  assemble  near 
the  stage,  a  fire  is  made,  and  the  respectable  operator,  after  the  body  is  taken 
down  [from  the  stage  on  which  it  has  lain  for  two  to  four  months],  with  his 
nails  tears  the  remaining  flesh  off  the  bones  and  throws  it  with  the  entrails 
into  the  fire,  where  it  is  consumed;  then  he  scrapes  the  bones  and  burns  the 
scrapings  likewise.  The  head  being  painted  red  with  vermilion,  is,  with  the 
rest  of  the  bones,  put  into  a  neatly  made  chest  (which  for  a  chief  is  also  made 
red)  and  deposited  in  the  loft  of  a  hut  built  for  that  purpose,  and  called  ‘bone 


Figure  27.  Cross-section  of  Mound  4.  looking  south:  1,  Clay  just  beneath  the 
sand;  4,  Yellow  earth;  5,  Clay  and  ashes;  6,  Burnt  clay;  7,  Altar  1;  8,  Altar 


house.’  Each  town  has  one  of  these.  After  remaining  here  one  year,  or  there¬ 
abouts,  if  he  be  a  man  of  any  note,  they  take  the  chest  down,  and  in  an  assem¬ 
bly  of  relations  and  friends  they  weep  once  more  over  him,  refresh  the  color 
of  the  head,  paint  the  box,  and  then  deposit  him  to  lasting  oblivion. 

Mound  4.  This  was  approximately  108  feet  long  by  66  feet  wide, 
with  its  greatest  elevation  about  6  feet  above  the  surrounding 
plain.  A  cross-section  near  its  center,  figure  27,  from  a  drawing 
by  Dr.  Metz,  shows  the  following  stratification:  beneath  the  thin 
top-soil  were  2  feet  of  clay  (1)  resting  upon  a  7-inch  layer  of  clay 
mixed  with  charcoal  (2);  then  came  26  inches  of  mottled  clay  (3); 
an  inch  of  sand,  and  7  inches  of  yellow  earth  (4);  layers  of  clay 
and  ashes  (5) ;  and  layers  of  burnt  clay,  probably  the  remains  of 
hearths  (6).  Three  pits  with  clay  covers  (9)  are  shown  similar  to 
those  in  mound  3,  but  without  the  accompanying  tunnels.  Thir¬ 
teen  pits  and  one  hundred  and  seven  post-holes,  not  shown  in  the 

>  Ales  Hrdlieka,  The  Painting  of  Human  Bones  Among  the  Indians,  Smithsonian  Report, 
1904,  p.  612. 

2  Ibid.,  p.  613. 


HAMILTON  COUNTY,  OHIO 


63 


ground  plan,  figure  28,  are  recorded.  As  it  is  not  possible  to  plot 
these  with  accuracy  from  the  given  data  they  are  omitted.  Several 
hearths  with  cup-shaped  depressions  were  found  in  the  north¬ 
western  section,  and  nearly  half  of  the  mound  area  was  paved  with 
flat  limestones  at  a  point  somewhat  above  the  level  of  the  sur¬ 
rounding  plain. 

At  a  depth  of  5§  feet  near  the  center  of  the  mound,  altar  1 
(number  7  in  plan  and  section)  was  encountered.  This  is  described 
by  Dr.  Metz  in  the  following  words: 

The  altar  was  almost  quadrangular  in  form,  being  a  little  wider  in  one  direc¬ 
tion  than  in  the  other.  At  each  corner  was  a  rounded  projection.  These  cor- 


top-soil;  2,  Clay  mixed  with  charcoal;  3,  Mottled  clay  resting  on  an  inch  of 
2;  9,  Pits  covered  with  clay  cone  covers. 

responded  to  the  cardinal  points  of  the  compass.  It  measured  about  6  feet 
diagonally  from  corner  to  corner,  and  the  slope  of  the  sides  was  10  inches. 
Near  the  southwest  side  of  the  floor  of  the  altar  was  a  circular  basin,  5  inches 
deep  and  15  inches  in  diameter.  In  this  were  found  a  copper  bracelet,  several 
copper  beads,  and  fragments  of  mica;  a  layer  of  pebbles  covered  the  basin. 
Nearly  the  entire  floor  of  the  altar  was  covered  with  a  layer  of  black  ashes, 
13  inches  deep.  Over  one  side  of  the  floor,  and  extending  nearly  to  its  center 
was  a  2-inch  stratum  of  white  ashes  (bone  ashes?).  Over  this  was  a  1-inch 
layer  of  black  ashes.  To  the  extreme  left  on  the  floor  of  the  altar  lay  a  large 
worked  piece  of  cannel  coal,  its  under  surface  charred.  To  the  right  of  the 
bed  of  white  ashes,  and  directly  in  the  center  of  the  altar  lay  a  nugget  of  copper 
weighing  3  pounds  and  10  ounces.  Close  to  this  were  the  fragments  of  the 
hollow  stone  effigy  wrapped  in  pieces  of  mica.  Next  to  this  lay  another  nugget 
of  copper,  beside  which  were  numerous  fragments  of  terra-cotta  images  of 
the  human  form.  Over  these  objects  lay  a  large  serpent  cut  from  mica.  Nu¬ 
merous  copper  beads  were  found  throughout  the  black  ashes,  above  which  was 
a  layer  of  gray  ashes,  5  inches  deep,  containing  great  quantities  of  animal  re¬ 
mains.  These  were  covered  with  a  layer  of  worked  pieces  of  cannel  coal.  Cov¬ 
ering  the  coal  and  the  entire  altar  was  a  5-inch  layer  of  pure  sand  which  was 
in  turn  covered  by  a  triple  layer  of  flat  stones.  These  were  quite  large,  and 
were  built  over  as  a  covering  for  the  contents  of  the  altar. 


G4 


TURNER  GROUP  OF  EARTHWORKS 


.After  the  removal  of  its  contents,  a  cross-section  was  made  through  the 
altar.  Its  floor  was  found  to  be  burned  very  hard  to  a  depth  of  2|  inches, 
beneath  which  was  a  2-inch  stratum  of  pure  clay,  and  below  this  4  inches  of 
red  burnt  earth.  Then  came  a  If  inch  layer  of  black  ashes,  upon  which  the 
altar  had  been  built. 

Beneath  the  northeastern  edge  of  this  altar  (a)  a  second  altar  was  found, 
square  in  form,  the  edges  measuring  approximately  4  feet.  Its  depth  was  4 


Figure  2S 

Plan  of  Mound  4:  7,  Altar  1,  from  which  many  artifacts  were  taken;  8,  Altar  2; 
9,  Adjoining  pits  with  clay  cone  covers. 


inches,  and  the  inner  slope  of  its  side  5  inches.  T  his  altar  contained  only 
dark  ashes. 

The  relative  positions  of  these  altars  are  shown  in  figures  27, 
28,  and  29. 

Contents  of  Altar  1.  After  removing  the  ashes  and  other  con¬ 
tents  to  the  Museum,  assorting  the  material  and  repairing  the 
broken  objects,  the  following  specimens  were  listed:  26  pieces 
of  cannel  coal,  all  but  one  of  which  had  been  laid  over  the  other 
objects  in  the  altar  (plate  17,  a);  7  nuggets  of  native  copper, 
the  largest  weighing  56|  ounces  (c  of  above  plate) ;  a  nugget  of 
meteoric  iron,  weighing  27^  ounces  (b);  many  fossils  of  various 
kinds,  probably  used  as  fetishes,  some  of  which  are  shown  in  d; 
284  astragali  of  deer  and  elk  (e) ;  44  hollow  cones  made  of  antler 
tips;  stones  and  concretions  of  natural  forms  used  as  fetishes  (plate 


Peabody  Museum  Papers 


Vol.  VIII,  No.  3,  Plate  17 


From  Altar  1,  Mound  4:  a,  Cannel  coal;  b,  Meteoric  iron;  c,  Native  copper;  d,  Fossils; 
e,  Astragali  of  deer  and  elk.  (1/4.) 


HAMILTON  COUNTY,  OHIO 


65 


18,  e) ;  a  bracelet,  cones,  and  beads  of  native  copper,  and  about 
200  pearl  beads  (plate  18,  a-d);  2  hollow  stone  effigies;  a  repre¬ 
sentation  of  the  horned  serpent  cut  from  mica;  and  several  terra¬ 
cotta  figurines.  In  addition  to  the  above  there  were  many  frag¬ 
ments  of  worked  bone,  shell,  teeth  and  claws  of  animals,  flint  im¬ 
plements,  etc.  The  more  important  of  these  specimens  will  be 
treated  separately. 

Meteoric  Iron.  Reference  has  been  made,  page  50,  to  the  objects 
of  this  metal  from  the  central  altar  of  mound  3.  No  artifacts  of 


Altars  of  Mound  4:  a,  Altar  1,  with  circular  basin  (b)  at  one  side; 
c,  Altar  2,  partly  beneath  Altar  1. 


this  material,  however,  were  found  with  the  nugget  from  the  altar 
of  mound  4.  This  mass  (plate  17,  b)  taken  with  the  other  objects 
from  the  ashes,  weighed  767.5  grams.  The  following  is  an  extract 
from  the  published  account  by  Dr.  Kinnicutt:1 

This  mass  consisted  principally  of  metallic  iron  and  olivine;  the  crystals 
of  olivine  have  a  diameter  of  5  to  10  millimeters,  and  are  enclosed  within  the 
iron.  The  specific  gravity  was  found  by  Professor  Lattimore  of  Rochester, 
New  York,  to  be  4.72. 

A  section  of  the  stone  was  made  and  polished,  and  the  general  appearance 
is  shown  by  the  following  wood  cut.  The  dark  portions  showing  the  size  and 
shape  of  the  crystals  of  olivine,  which  were  of  a  dark  green  weighing  from  200 

1  Leonard  P.  Kinnicutt,  op.  cit.,  Reports  of  Peabody  Museum  of  Am.  Arch,  and  Eth.,  Vol. 
Ill,  pp.  382-384. 


66 


TURNER  GROUP  OF  EARTHWORKS 


to  800  milligrammes,  had  a  specific  gravity  of  3.33.  An  analysis  of  the  olivine 
gave  the  following  results: 


SiCb .  40.02  per  cent 

FeO  .  14.06 

MnO .  0.10  “ 

MgO .  45.60  “ 


The  iron  which  enclosed  these  crystals  had  a  specific  gravity  of  7.894,  and 
gave  by  J.  Lawrence  Smith’s  process  of  analyses: 


Insoluble  residue 

Iron . 

Nickel . 

Cobalt . 

Copper . 

Phosphorus . 


00.09 

89.00 

10.65 

00.45 

Traces 


A  polished  surface  under  the  microscope  showed,  beside  the  crystals  of 
olivine,  small  crystals  of  bronzite,  which  substance  could  also  be  easily  detected 
by  reflected  light.  Small  quantities  of  schreibersite  were  also  undoubtedly 
present  as  shown  by  the  traces  of  phosphorus  found  in  the  analysis  of  the  iron. 

The  specimen  belongs  to  the  class  of  meteorites  known  as  pallasites,  and  a 
section  of  it  resembles  more  closely  a  section  of  the  Atakama  stone  than  any 
other  known  pallasite. 


Meteoric  iron  artifacts  have  been  found  in  several  of  the  mounds 
of  the  Great  Earthwork  Builders.  From  the  Hopewell  Group  were 
taken  beads,  head-plates,  and  other  ornaments,  an  adze  blade,  a 
drill,  and  small  chisels  in  antler  handles.  It  is  interesting  to  note 
that  the  above  chisels  are  curved  and  have  the  form  of  the  upper 
incisors  of  the  beaver,  which  were  so  widely  used  as  cutting  tools 
by  the  Indians.  It  seems  that  in  making  the  chisels  of  iron  they 
copied  the  shape  of  the  most  effective  tool  of  this  nature  which 
they  possessed.1 

In  addition  to  the  specimens  from  the  central  altar  of  mound  3, 
there  are  in  the  collection  of  the  Museum,  several  ear-ornaments, 
buttons,  etc.,  covered  with  meteoric  iron,  and  an  adze  blade  of 
this  metal,  all  from  the  Liberty  Group  of  mounds  in  Scioto  Valley. 

Atwater 2  reports  a  small  sword  or  large  knife  completely 
oxidized,  and  a  plate  of  iron  from  the  great  mound  in  the  center 
of  the  circular  embankment  at  Circleville.  These  were  probably 

1  For  a  drawing  of  three  of  these  chisels,  see  Willoughby,  op.  cit.,  Holmes  Anniversary  Vol¬ 
ume,  plate  iv,  f. 

2  Calib  Atwater,  op.  cit.,  p.  178. 


Peabody  Museum  Papers 


Vol.  VIII,  No.  3,  Plate  18 


From  Altar  1,  Mound  4:  a,  Bracelet  of  copper;  b,  Beads  of  copper;  c,  Pearl  beads;  d, 
Copper  cones;  e,  Stones  of  natural  form  used  as  fetishes.  (1/3.) 


4 


HAMILTON  COUNTY,  OHIO 


67 


of  meteoric  iron.  Very  naturally  these  early  archaeologists  re¬ 
garded  this  iron  as  of  European  provenience,  and  as  both  the 
specimens  were  much  disintegrated,  their  original  forms  or  uses 
were  not  recognized.  The  “  knife  ”  was  accompanied  by  an  antler 
handle,  probably  of  the  same  general  type  as  the  antler  handles  of 
the  meteoric  iron  chisels  above  referred  to,  portions  of  which  still 
adhere  to  the  implements.  These  meteoric  iron  chisels  are  now 
in  the  Field  Museum  of  Chicago.  Hildreth’s  and  Atwater’s  mis¬ 
interpretation  of  the  finds  at  Marietta,  and  undoubtedly  also  of 
the  ones  at  Circleville,  have  misled  archaeologists  for  many  years 
as  to  the  antiquity  of  the  mounds  of  the  Great  Earthwork  Build¬ 
ers.  This  is  also  true  of  certain  well-known  writers  who  have  done 
so  much  to  belittle  the  monumental  work  of  Squier  and  Davis. 

Most  of  the  meteoric  iron  from  the  mounds  has  been  worked 
into  tools  or  ornaments,  and  it  is  impossible  to  tell  whether  it  was 
all  derived  from  one  or  several  meteorites.  If  from  only  one,  it 
would  seem  to  indicate  that  the  Turner,  Hopewell,  Liberty,  and 
Circleville  Groups  were  contemporary. 

Fetishes.  Stones  and  concretions  of  peculiar  shapes,  and  espe¬ 
cially  those  resembling  human  or  animal  forms  or  any  of  their  parts, 
were  by  most  Indians  supposed  to  possess  supernatural  powers, 
and  were  used  as  fetishes.  Several  of  these  were  taken  from  the 
altar,  and  are  illustrated  in  the  lower  half  of  plate  18.  The  most 
remarkable  of  these  is  the  middle  stone  in  the  upper  row  (e), 
which  represents  the  head  of  a  serpent.  Its  form  has  not  been 
modified  in  the  least  by  art;  even  the  eye  is  natural.  It  is  very 
probable  that  the  serpent  was  the  supreme  guardian  of  the  owner 
of  the  objects  sacrificed  here,  for  the  mica  effigy  of  the  horned 
deity,  illustrated  in  figures  30  and  31,  was  also  found, on  this  altar. 
The  fossils  shown  on  plate  17,  d,  were  probably  also  regarded  as 
fetishes. 

Mica  Objects.  A  considerable  number  of  designs  cut  from  thin 
mica  had  been  placed  upon  the  altar,  and  nearly  all  were  de¬ 
stroyed.  Some  of  them  lay  in  contact  with  one  of  the  large  stone 
effigies,  and  were  thought  by  Dr.  Metz  to  have  been  wrapped 
around  it.  A  high  degree  of  heat  will  anneal  this  mineral,  and 
render  it  soft,  pliable,  and  easily  torn.  Practically  all  of  these 
mica  objects  owe  their  destruction  to  extreme  heat.  Among  the 
hundreds  of  fragments  were  pieces  of  small  scrolls,  serpentine 


68 


TURNER  GROUP  OF  EARTHWORKS 


figures,  etc.,  none  of  which  could  be  joined  to  form  an  intelligible 
design,  with  the  single  exception  of  the  horned  serpent  deity  above 
mentioned.  This  had  been  one  of  the  last  sacrificial  objects  to 
be  deposited,  and  probably  owes  its  fair  state  of  preservation  to 
this  fact.  Drawings  of  the  greater  part  of  the  upper  portion  of  this 
serpent  have  been  published  elsewhere.1  Since  beginning  the 
preparation  of  this  paper,  however,  the  writer  has  made  a  careful 


Figure  30 

From  Altar  1,  Mound  4:  Effigy  of  horned  serpent  cut  from  mica.  (1/4.) 

search  among  the  mica  fragments  from  this  altar  in  hopes  of  being 
able  to  supply  at  least  some  of  the  missing  parts,  with  the  good 
results  shown  in  the  photograph.  The  nose,  a  part  of  the  upper 
jaw,  the  tail  with  a  portion  of  the  rattles,  and  the  lower  part  of  the 
body  were  found.  The  incised  lines  forming  the  base  of  the  jaw, 
the  lines  about  the  eye,  and  the  horns  on  one  side  of  the  head,  do 
not  show  clearly  in  the  photograph,  but  are  brought  out  in  the 
drawing.  There  are  two  perforations  for  the  attachment  of  the 
eye,  which  was  undoubtedly  a  large  pearl  perforated  laterally  for 

1  Willoughby,  op.  cit.,  Holmes  Anniversary  Volume,  plate  ix,  m. 


HAMILTON  COUNTY,  OHIO 


69 


the  passage  of  a  cord.  Such  a  perforated  pearl  of  a  size  to  fit  ex¬ 
actly  the  two  holes  in  the  head  was  found  among  the  ashes.  There 
seems  to  be  no  evidence  that  the  effigy  had  been  painted. 

The  prominent  place  occupied  by  the  serpent  in  the  religious 
life  of  the  Indians  is  too  well  known  to  be  enlarged  upon  here.  He 
was  god  of  the  upper  regions,  the  four  winds  and  four  quarters, 
and  occurs  in  combination  with  the  primitive  cosmic  symbol  or 
some  of  its  parts,  from  Ohio  southward  to  Central  America.  He 


From  Altar  1,  Mound  4:  Drawing  of  the  serpent  effigy  illustrated  in  figure  30, 
showing  the  incised  lines  outlining  the  horns,  a  part  of  the  lower  jaw,  and  the  eye, 
which  do  not  appear  clearly  in  the  photograph.  (1/4.) 

was  one  of  the  principal  divinities  of  many  North  American  tribes. 
Among  the  Maya  and  Nahua  peoples  he  was  usually  shown  with 
plumes  instead  of  horns.  The  most  noted  representation  of  this 
horned  god  in  the  North  is  the  great  Serpent  Mound  of  Adams 
County,1  which  belongs  to  the  same  general  culture  as  the  Turner, 
Hopewell,  Liberty,  and  other  mound  groups.  Interesting  repre¬ 
sentations  of  this  serpent  were  taken  from  the  first  three  of  these 
groups. 

For  a  description  of  this  effigy,  see  Willoughby,  The  Serpent  Mound  of  Adams  County , 
Ohio,  American  Anthropologist,  Vol.  XXI,  1919,  pp.  153-163. 


70 


TURNER  GROUP  OF  EARTHWORKS 


Effigies  in  Stone.  A  remarkable  effigy  of  a  serpent -monster, 
part  horned  serpent  and  part  quadruped,  beautifully  carved  in 
red  slate,  also  from  this  altar,  is  illustrated  in  plate  19,  a,  b,  and 
a  side  view  is  given  in  figure  32.  This  was  broken  into  many 
pieces,  most  of  which  were  recovered.  The  head  and  tail  are  those 
of  the  horned  serpent.  The  latter  has  the  usual  rattles.  On  the 
head,  above  and  below,  appear  the  typical  reptilian  plates.  Two 
of  the  horns  are  carved  in  relief,  and  two  are  made  separately, 
being  inserted  in  holes  drilled  at  the  sides.  Drilled  holes  also  form 
the  eye  sockets,  into  which  were  doubtless  inserted  pearls,  as  was 
usual  in  the  smaller  animal  effigies  of  this  class.  The  mouth  is 
open,  as  shown  in  the  side  view.  This  opening  is  plain,  depressed, 


From  Altar  1,  Mound  4:  Side  view  of  the  horned  serpent-monster  shown  in  plate  19, 

a,  b.  (2/5.) 

and  without  teeth.  It  is  probable  that  this  depression  was  origi¬ 
nally  inlaid  with  some  material  representing  teeth,  for  there  are 
two  holes  drilled  upward  into  each  side  of  the  forward  portion  of  the 
upper  jaw  beneath  the  nostrils  in  which  two  canine  teeth  of  some 
small  mammal  were  probably  inserted.  The  body  is  that  of  a 
quadruped,  and  is  ornamented  with  a  decorative  band.  The 
vent  is  pronounced,  a  feature  occasionally  noticeable  in  Indian 
representations  of  both  birds  and  quadrupeds,  the  significance  of 
which  is  not  clear.  The  effigy  probably  represents  the  water- 
monster  or  serpent-dragon,  a  mythical  being  of  the  Kiowa  and 
other  northern  tribes,  which  is  referred  to  by  James  Mooney  as  the 
“  water-monster  formed  like  a  horned  alligator.”  1 

The  second  hollow  object  from  this  altar  of  the  same  general 
class  is  figured  in  c,  and  d,  of  the  above  plate.  Instead  of  being 
carved  in  relief,  the  animal  is  represented  by  the  usual  lines  and 
cross-hatching  seen  in  the  incised  carvings  upon  bone  and  antler. 


1  Science,  March  24,  1905. 


*,'v 


Peabody  Museum  Papers 


Vol.  VIII,  No.  3,  Plate  19 


From  Altar  1,  Mound  4:  a,  b,  Horned  serpent-monster;  c,  d,  Hollow  stone  object  with 
incised  animal  figure.  (About  3/8.) 


HAMILTON  COUNTY,  OHIO 


71 


The  entire  design  is  illustrated  in  figure  33.  The  drawing  is  so 
conventionalized  we  can  only  guess  as  to  what  animal  it  represents. 
The  eye  cavities  have  an  unfinished  appearance,  and  it  is  probable 
that  pearls  were  inserted  in  them.  The  material  is  reddish-brown 
mica-schist  thickly  interspersed  with  particles  of  gold-colored  mica. 
This  stone  seems  to  have  been  highly  prized  by  the  Indians,  and 
was  used  in  making  various  choice  artifacts,  including  the  stone  ear¬ 
rings  referred  to  on  page  60. 

These  two  effigies  belong  to  a  group  of  hollow  objects  from  the 
mounds,  the  use  of  which  is  unknown.  They  are  usually  made  of 


Figure  33 

From  Altar  1,  Mound  4:  Incised  design  upon  hollow  stone  object  shown  in  plate  19, 

c,  d.  (2/5.) 


choice  varieties  of  stone,  but  sometimes  of  antler  or  other  material. 
They  are  carved  into  many  shapes,  but  the  more  elaborate  examples 
are  representations  of  the  upper  portion  of  a  bird  or  quadruped, 
or  the  head  of  some  animal.  One  specimen  in  the  Museum  collec¬ 
tion  is  in  the  form  of  a  large  beetle.  All  of  them  have  a  cavity 
upon  the  under  side,  and  seem  to  have  been  fitted  over  some  ob¬ 
ject.  Some  have  perforations  through  the  top,  evidently  for  at¬ 
tachment. 

Figurines  of  Terra-cotta.  Perhaps  the  most  interesting  objects 
from  this  altar  are  the  figurines  illustrated  on  plates  20  and  21. 
There  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  the  artists  who  fashioned 
them  belonged  to  the  group  of  people  who  resided  here,  and  that 
the  effigies  represent  individuals  or  types  of  the  same  people. 
Dr.  Hooton  has  called  attention  to  the  fact  that  the  peculiar  form 


72 


TURNER  GROUP  OF  EARTHWORKS 


of  head  shown  in  the  figurines  corresponds  closely  to  the  crania 
from  the  mounds  and  burial  places  of  this  group. 

Unfortunately,  none  of  the  effigies  is  perfect.  They  were  either 
deliberately  broken  before  being  placed  on  the  altar,  or  the  heat 
from  the  fire  caused  them  to  splinter.  Probably  both  agencies 
contributed  to  their  destruction.  Such  fragments  as  could  be 
fitted  together  have  been  carefully  joined.  In  this  way,  the  com¬ 
plete  outlines  of  several  were  restored,  as  shown  in  plate  21. 

The  figures  were  modeled  from  clay  without  the  addition  of  shell. 
They  were  apparently  roughly  formed  with  the  fingers,  and  finished 
with  modeling  tools,  some  of  which  had  sharp  edges  for  trimming 
and  paring  the  surface.  The  ears,  ear-ornaments,  garments,  and 
some  other  portions  were  prepared  separately  and  luted  on.  So 
far  as  can  be  judged  by  the  fragments,  both  arms  of  each  individual 
occupied  the  same  relative  position.  This  is  another  illustration 
of  the  symmetry  so  characteristic  of  the  art  of  the  Great  Earth¬ 
work  Builders  and  the  Northwest  Coast  tribes. 

Two  fragments  of  similar  figures  were  obtained  in  the  general 
digging  of  mound  4,  and  another  fragment  was  found  under  the 
northern  embankment  of  the  great  enclosure. 

These  figures  have  little  in  common  with  the  crude  terra-cotta 
effigies  from  other  sections  of  the  United  States.  The  modeling 
is  much  superior,  and  an  unusual  variety  of  postures  is  shown. 
As  portraitures  of  the  human  form  these  effigies  compare  favorably 
with  many  of  the  figurines  from  the  Maya  and  Nahua  regions. 

The  largest  of  these  effigies  (plates  20  and  21,  g)  represents  a 
man  with  hands  crossed  over  his  abdomen.  The  face  is  destroyed, 
but  the  shape  of  the  head  is  easily  determined.  He  wears  spool¬ 
shaped  ear-ornaments  of  the  same  form  as  those  of  copper  taken 
from  the  graves  and  altars  of  this  group.  The  large  knot  of  hair 
shown  above  the  forehead  in  the  drawing  was  among  the  fragments, 
and  undoubtedly  belonged  to  this  figure.  He  wears  a  belt,  and  a 
broad  breech-cloth,  which  has  been  painted  red. 

The  greater  part  of  the  surface  of  the  effigy  shown  in  a,  of  both 
plates,  is  badly  mutilated.  This  man,  also,  wears  a  belt,  breech- 
cloth,  and  large  ear-ornaments.  His  fore-knot,  is  bound  with  a 
fillet  which  is  carried  around  the  back  of  the  head.  His  foot 
coverings  consist  of  moccasins  with  short  leggings  attached.  The 
upper  edge  of  the  legging  is  scalloped.  The  moccasin  proper  has 


Peabody  Museum  Papers 


Vol.  VIII,  No.  3,  Plate  20 


From  Altar  1,  Mound  4:  Terra-cotta  figurines.  (About  1/3.) 


HAMILTON  COUNTY,  OHIO 


73 


the  U-shaped  inset  characteristic  of  the  northern  Algonquian  and 
neighboring  tribes. 

The  seated  figure,  f,  in  both  of  the  above  plates,  represents  a 
warrior  with  sides  of  the  head  shaved,  leaving  a  ridge  of  short 
hair  extending  across  the  crown  from  front  to  back,  a  method  of 
arrangement  characteristic  of  the  warriors  of  the  Pawnee,  Sauc 
and  Fox,  and  various  other  tribes  of  the  northern  half  of  the 
United  States. 

The  kneeling  effigy,  illustrated  in  e,  has  the  usual  fore-knot,  and 
wears  a  breech-cloth.  The  lower  legs  are  flexed,  and  the  toes 
turned  inward,  as  shown  somewhat  imperfectly  in  the  rear  view. 
In  the  seated  figure,  c,  no  attempt  has  been  made  to  restore  the 
head,  as  the  entire  outer  surface  has  scaled  off. 

In  the  upper  row  in  plate  20  is  shown  the  lower  part  of  a  face, 
and  one  ear  with  a  large  perforation  in  the  lobe.  The  head  is 
restored  in  d,  plate  21.  Detached  ornaments  were  probably  in¬ 
serted  in  the  perforations. 

Portions  of  two  other  male  figures  are  illustrated  in  k,  plate  20. 
Both  of  these  wear  the  usual  breech-cloth. 

Aside  from  a  few  small  fragments  of  one  or  two  individuals, 
three  women  are  represented  in  the  figurines.  The  most  perfect 
of  these  is  shown  in  b,  of  both  plates.  This  is  6^  inches  in  height, 
and  represents  a  matron  dressed  in  a  short  blanket-skirt,  and  low 
foot  coverings  of  the  general  form  of  the  woven  shoes  from  the 
Kentucky  caves.  The  hair  is  neatly  parted,  and  gathered  in  a 
chignon  at  the  back  of  the  head.  The  ears  are  not  pierced.  The 
whole  skirt  is  colored  a  dull  red,  and  traces  of  paint  may  be  seen 
on  other  portions  of  the  figure.  The  eyeballs  show  traces  of 
white,  and  the  lips  are  colored  red.  It  seems  probable  that  the 
whole  effigy  was  originally  carefully  painted.  The  skirt  is  short 
and  reaches  nearly  to  the  knees.  It  is  of  the  type  worn  by  the 
Natchez  and  other  tribes  of  the  South,  and  is  in  the  form  of  a  long 
narrow  blanket,  wrapped  around  the  hips,  one  corner  being  tucked 
in  at  the  waist-line  at  the  back  to  hold  it  in  place,  as  shown  in  the 
back  view  in  the  drawing. 

The  effigy  of  another  woman  is  illustrated  on  plate  20,  h.  This 
has  been  so  badly  injured  that  few  details  can  be  made  out,  a 
considerable  portion  of  the  exterior  having  flaked  off.  She  wears 
the  same  type  of  skirt,  but  instead  of  the  outer  end  being  brought 


74 


TURNER  GROUP  OF  EARTHWORKS 


around  under  the  right  arm  before  tucking  in  at  the  back,  it  is 
carried  in  the  opposite  direction  under  the  left  arm. 

The  third  woman  is  represented  by  a  few  fragments  only.  These 
have  been  joined  together,  and  are  shown  in  plate  20,  i.  This 
apparently  was  one  of  the  most  carefully  modeled  in  the  group. 
It  represents  a  young  woman  dressed  in  the  characteristic  red 
blanket-skirt,  and  low  shoes,  sitting  in  the  usual  fashion  of  Indian 
squaws,  with  the  lower  limbs  flexed  and  the  feet  carried  backward 
to  one  side,  the  weight  of  the  body  resting  principally  upon  the 
lower  half  of  the  left  leg.  The  portions  of  the  exterior  of  the 
figure  which  remain  show  unusual  care  in  modeling  and  finish. 
It  is  possible  that  these  figures  when  properly  arranged  may  have 
formed  one  or  more  mortuary  groups,  and  the  large  effigy  with 
crossed  hands  may  have  represented  a  corpse,  around  which  the 
other  figures  were  placed. 

In  addition  to  the  objects  above  described  taken  from  altar  1 
of  mound  4,  there  must  have  been  many  articles  of  value  such  as 
textile  fabrics,  objects  of  wood,  dressed  skin,  etc.,  which  were 
wholly  consumed. 

Mound  5.  This  was  a  counterpart  of  mound  6,  so  far  as  its  out¬ 
ward  appearance  was  concerned.  It  contained  four  altars  placed 
near  together  at  different  levels.  The  exploration  was  begun  by 
digging  a  trench,  18  feet  wide,  into  the  mound  from  its  northwest¬ 
ern  end.  About  3  feet  from  the  beginning  of  the  trench,  at  a  depth 
of  6  inches,  a  skeleton  was  uncovered  lying  upon  its  side  in  the 
position  indicated  in  the  plan  (figure  34).  This  was  undoubtedly 
an  intrusive  burial. 

Nothing  further  of  note  was  found  until  the  trench  had  been 
carried  21  feet  into  the  mound,  when  a  burnt  area  near  its  base, 
and  the  edge  of  altar  1  at  a  higher  level,  were  discovered.  The 
trench  was  then  extended  towards  the  north,  and  the  altars  shown 
in  the  plan  and  section  were  found.  Dr.  Metz  writes  as  follows 
concerning  them: 

Altar  1  was  found  at  a  depth  of  41  inches  below  the  surface  of  the  mound 
measuring  to  the  floor  of  its  basin.  The  dip  of  its  sides  was  12  inches,  and  the 
perpendicular  depth  of  the  basin,  7  inches.  Its  length  was  3  feet,  and  its 
breadth  31  inches.  It  was  filled  with  sand  and  gravel,  And  was  covered  over 
with  flat  stones.  .Altar  2  was  unearthed  immediately  under  the  layer  of  gravel 
upon  which  the  first  altar  rested.  Its  length  was  29  inches,  its  width  19  inches. 
Its  basin,  only  3  inches  deep,  was  filled  with  sand  and  a  dark  tenacious  earth 


Peabody  Museum  Papers 


Vol.  VIII,  No.  3,  Plate  21 


From  Altar  1,  Mound  4:  Terra-cotta  figurines,  with  some  of  the  outlines  restored. 

(About  1/3.) 


HAMILTON  COUNTY,  OHIO 


75 


or  clay.  Altar  3  was  33  inches  long,  27  inches  wide,  and  6  inches  deep.  The 
dip  of  its  sides  was  9  inches.  Altar  4  was  3  feet  long,  2  feet  wide,  and  4  inches 
deep,  the  dip  of  its  sides  being  8  inches. 

No  artifacts  were  found  in  any  of  these  altars.  The  second  altar 
was  removed  and  shipped  to  the  Museum.  There  was  a  series  of 
post-holes  upon  three  sides  of  the  group  of  altars,  as  shown  in  the 
ground  plan.  There  is  no  mention  of  these  in  the  notes.  Other 


A 


post-holes  may  have  occurred  which  were  overlooked,  or  their 
importance  not  recognized.  There  is  also  no  mention  of  a  low 
wall  of  river  stones  such  as  was  found  surrounding  the  other 
mounds  of  this  connected  group.  This  is  probably  due  to  the  fact 
that  the  mound  was  not  wholly  removed  during  the  exploration. 

Mound  6.  This  mound  was  66  feet  in  length  by  44  feet  in  width, 
measuring  from  the  outer  edge  of  the  encircling  wall,  which  con- 


76 


TURNER  GROUP  OF  EARTHWORKS 


tinued  in  three  layers  4  feet  up  the  sides  of  the  mound.  Its  great¬ 
est  altitude  was  5  feet.  The  upper  portion,  to  a  depth  of  2  feet 
6  inches,  was  composed  of  clay,  beneath  which  was  a  nearly  hori¬ 
zontal  layer  of  gravel,  2  inches  thick,  its  edges  touching  the  upper 


A 


Figure  35.  Cross-section  of  Mound  6:  1,  2,  3,  Hearths  of  burnt 


layers  of  the  stones  forming  the  encircling  wall.  Beneath  this 
layer  of  gravel  was  a  stratum  of  burnt  loam,  8  inches  deep,  con¬ 
taining  the  circular  altar  (4),  and  hearths  (1,  2,  3).  The  hearths 
were  covered  with  sand.  The  one  nearest  the  altar  was  covered 
with  very  fine  sand  in  which  were  found  several  animal  teeth,  per¬ 
forated.  To  the  southwest  from  this  hearth  lay  the  altar,  2  feet  in 
diameter  and  6  inches  deep.  The  sides  of  its  basin  were  burned 
to  a  depth  of  3  inches,  and  the  burning  extended  downward  be¬ 
neath  the  altar  for  12  inches.  Some  distance  to  the  east,  a  third 
hearth  was  uncovered,  measuring  30  by  36  inches.  Two  distinct 
burnings  had  taken  place  here.  In  the  first,  the  clay  had  been 
burned  to  a  depth  of  14  inches.  This  had  been  covered  with  fresh 
clay,  the  upper  portion  of  which  was  burned  to  a  depth  of  2  inches; 
over  this,  fine  sand  was  strewn.  Beneath  the  level  of  the  hearths 
and  altars  were  strata  of  sand,  gravel,  and  burnt  earth. 

Beneath  the  wall,  at  the  eastern  side  of  the  mound,  were  two 
nearly  square  pits  separated  from  each  other  by  a  clay  wall,  4 
inches  thick.  The  larger  pit  was  4  feet  long,  3|  feet  wide,  and  28 
inches  deep  (number  6,  figure  35) ;  the  smaller  was  3  feet  square, 
with  a  depth  of  1§  feet.  At  one  corner  of  the  floor  of  this  pit  an 
oval  hole  had  been  dug  to  a  depth  of  about  a  foot.  These  pits 
were  filled  with  river  sand  in  which  were  numerous  small  fresh 
water  shells. 

Post-holes  to  the  number  of  one  hundred  and  three  were  found, 
and  plotted  on  Dr.  Metz’s  plan,  many  of  which  were  beneath  the 
surrounding  wall. 


HAMILTON  COUNTY,  OHIO 


77 


Mound  7.  This  mound,  with  its  periphery  touching  the  edges 
of  mounds  3,  4,  5,  and  6,  is  one  of  the  smallest  of  the  connected 
group.  It  was  40  feet  in  diameter,  and  a  little  over  5  feet  in  height. 
Near  its  base,  at  the  same  level  as  the  surrounding  plain,  was  the 


clay;  4,  Circular  altar;  5,  Post-holes;  6,  Pit  beneath  wall. 


burnt  area  of  irregular  form  indicated  in  the  ground  plan,  figure  37. 
A  circular  depression  or  hearth  was  found  near  the  stake  marking 
the  center  of  the  mound  (number  8).  A  few  feet  to  the  west  was 


Figure  36 

Plan  of  Mound  6:  1,  2,  3,  Hearths  of  burnt  clay;  4,  Circular  altar;  5,  Post-holes. 

a  circular  basin  (9),  4  inches  deep,  filled  with  ashes  and  covered 
with  clay.  The  altar  (7),  found  4  feet  east  of  the  central  stake, 
was  3  feet  long,  and  28  inches  wide.  This  was  taken  out  and 
shipped  to  the  Museum.  Beneath  it  were  indications  of  a  second 


78 


TURNER  GROUP  OF  EARTHWORKS 

altar.  A  few  pits  and  numerous  post-holes  found  at  the  base  of 
ie  mound  are  shown  on  the  plan  prepared  by  Dr.  Metz.  The 

}  artifact  found  was  a  copper  ring,  about  a  foot  from  the 
surface. 

Mound  8.  At  the  foot  of  the  graded  way,  there  is  a  small  earth¬ 
work  enclosure  still  showing  a  very  shallow  ditch  on  its  inner  side. 


Figure  37 

CroMM^tn  and  plan  of  Mound  7:  1.  Mixed  clay  and  earth;  2.  Gravel-  3  Burnt 
area.  4.  Clay  and  charcoal;  5.  Black  earth;  6,  Hard-pan;  7.  Altar;  8,  Circular 
depression;  9.  Circular  basin;  10,  Pit;  11,  Post-holes. 


This  enclosure  is  approximately  100  feet  in  diameter,  with  gate- 
\\d\  opening  to  the  east.  The  height  of  the  embankment  is  about 
10  inches.  \\  ithin  this  is  mound  8,  having  a  height  of  30  inches 
Dr.  Metz  writes  as  follows: 


HAMILTON  COUNTY,  OHIO 


79 


A  trench  15  feet  wide  was  carried  directly  through  from  north  to  south, 
which  was  the  longest  diameter  of  the  mound.  Many  stones  were  uncovered, 
which  had  probably  been  torn  up  by  the  plow.  Mr.  Turner  informed  me  that 
he  had  carted  away  six  wagon  loads. 

On  reaching  a  depth  of  10  inches,  a  pavement  of  flat  river  stones  was  un¬ 
covered  which  extended  25  feet  north  and  south,  and  had  a  width  of  12  feet 
throughout.  This  pavement  was  laid  upon  a  layer  of  black  soil,  5  inches  deep. 
No  traces  of  ashes  or  charcoal  were  found.  Below  this  black  soil  was  the 
clayey  loam  of  the  surrounding  plain. 

In  1905,  Mr.  Volk  uncovered  and  photographed  a  portion  of 
this,  or  a  similar  pavement  within  the  earth  circle.  His  descrip¬ 
tion  follows : 

Dug  trenches  west  of  the  many  stones  strewn  over  the  surface.  It  was  found 
that  they  had  been  arranged  in  layers  10  to  12  inches  below  the  surface  .... 
They  were  water-worn  pebbles  of  fossiliferous  limestones  about  6  to  12  inches 
in  length,  by  4  to  8  inches  in  width,  the  thickness  varying  from  2  to  4  inches. 
There  were  four  layers  of  stones  near  the  center  of  the  pavement,  but  at  the 
edges  they  dwindled  to  a  single  layer.  In  removing  the  stones  I  found  about 
a  dozen  that  had  been  burned.  Several  of  the  pebbles  were  notched,  and  some 
of  the  thin  ones  showed  chipping  to  a  cutting  edge.  These  may  have  served 
as  diggers  in  excavating  the  tough  clayey  soil  of  the  locality. 

Mound  9.  This  mound  was  about  60  feet  in  diameter,  and  5 
feet  high,  and  was  outlined  with  the  usual  layer  of  stones.  From 
the  surface  downward  the  strata  were  as  follows:  clay  similar  to 
that  of  the  ordinary  surface  of  the  plain,  16  inches;  clay  containing 
numerous  traces  of  charcoal,  18  inches;  a  layer  of  flat  stones, 
15  feet  wide  and  25  feet  long,  occupying  the  center  of  the  mound; 
from  the  edges  of  the  stone  layer,  a  stratum  of  coarse  gravel  3 
inches  thick  extended  to  the  mound’s  outer  edge;  and  beneath 
the  layer  of  stones  was  a  thin  stratum  of  sand  which  covered  a 
layer  of  black  ashes  under  which  the  earth  was  tinged  red  by 
burning. 

To  the  west  of  the  center  of  the  mound  and  beneath  the  layer 
of  stones,  an  altar,  4  feet  long  and  2  feet  wide,  was  found.  Its 
basin  was  4  inches  deep,  with  sloping  sides  10  inches  wide  (num¬ 
ber  1  of  figures  38  and  39).  The  altar  was  filled  with  fine  sand 
covered  with  coarse  gravel.  Its  floor  was  burned  to  a  depth  of 
5  inches.  Nine  feet  east  of  the  altar,  at  a  lower  level,  a  nearly 
circular  basin  or  altar  was  uncovered  (number  2) ,  the  bowl-shaped 
cavity  of  which  was  8  inches  deep,  and  3  feet  across  at  the  top. 
Its  floor  was  burned  to  a  depth  of  5  inches.  The  cavity  was  filled 


80 


TURNER  GROUP  OF  EARTHWORKS 


with  a  dark,  very  tenacious  earth.  No  artifacts,  with  the  excep¬ 
tion  of  the  usual  flint  chips  and  potsherds  scattered  through  the 
mound,  were  obtained.  At  the  base  of  the  mound  numerous  pits 


Figure  38.  Cross-section  of  Mound  9: 


or  post-holes,  12  to  24  inches  deep,  and  6  to  10  inches  in  diameter, 
were  found. 

Mound  10.  This  is  situated  just  north  of  the  small  enclosure 
at  the  foot  of  the  graded  way.  It  was  oblong  in  shape,  about  3 
feet  high,  and  extended  east  and  west  approximately  40  feet. 

A  trench  18  feet  wide  was  dug  through  its  longest  diameter.  The  mound 
was  composed  of  sandy  loam  showing  traces  of  charcoal  throughout.  At  its 
center,  and  on  a  level  with  the  plain,  was  found  an  ash-pit  which  was  carefully 
explored.  The  contents  were  as  follows,  working  downward:  7  inches  of  black 
ashes;  16  inches  of  gravel,  sand,  and  ashes;  and  at  the  bottom,  4  inches  of 
pure  ashes.  The  diameter  of  the  pit  at  its  top  was  6  feet;  at  its  bottom,  16 
inches;  and  its  depth  was  27  inches.  Scattered  throughout  the  ashes,  sand, 
and  gravel  were  animal  bones,  fragments  of  pottery,  mica,  and  charcoal. 

Mound  11.  Within  the  great  enclosure  and  about  300  feef 
northeast  of  mound  10  is  situated  this  tumulus.  Excavations 
showed  it  to  be  composed  of  sandy  loam  having  a  mottled  ap¬ 
pearance.  No  traces  of  charcoal  or  ashes  were  discovered. 

In  the  center,  and  at  a  depth  of  only  8  inches,  a  skeleton  was  unearthed  in 
a  horizontal  position,  head  to  the  south.  The  right  hand  was  placed  over  the 
pelvis,  and  contained  a  small  copper  adze  blade  [figure  44,  c).  About  4  inches 
from  the  skull  a  mass  of  galena,  weighing  one  pound  and  six  ounces,  was 
found.  Three  feet  southeast  of  this  skeleton  lay  the  remains  of  a  child  in  a 
doubled-up  position;  and  5  feet  southwest  of  this,  and  16  inches  beneath  the 
surface,  was  a  second  adult  skeleton  in  a  horizontal  position  with  its  head  to 
the  south.  Near  the  left  hip  was  a  broken  pottery  vessel,  and  near  by  a  flint 
knife.  [This  vessel  is  shown  with  outline  restored  in  plate  22,  d.] 

Mound  12.  This  interesting  earthwork,  the  larger  of  the  two 
mounds  in  the  elevated  circle,  was  52  feet  in  diameter,  and  some- 


HAMILTON  COUNTY,  OHIO 


81 


what  more  than  5  feet  high.  After  working  through  a  stratum  of 
clayey  loam,  2|  feet  in  depth,  Dr.  Metz  came  upon  a  horizontal 
pavement  of  flat  river  stones,  25  feet  in  diameter,  having  a  cir- 


B 

1,  Altar;  2,  Circular  basin. 


cular  outline  (2,  figure  40).  This  was  about  3  feet  above  the  base 
of  the  mound.  Dr.  Metz’s  account  is  as  follows: 


This  pavement  was  laid  on  a  3-inch  stratum  of  sand.  On  removing  the 
stones  and  sand,  a  circular  stone  wall  was  discovered,  and  within  the  enclosure 


Figure  39 

Plan  of  Mound  9:  1,  Altar;  2,  Circular  basin. 


formed  by  this  wall  was  a  mass  of  round,  drift-gravel  pebbles  ranging  in  size 
from  a  filbert  to  an  orange.  These  pebbles  covered  an  earth  mound  within 
the  wall,  which  was  2  feet  4  inches  in  height,  and  had  a  base  diameter  of  12 
feet.  The  earth  composing  this  little  mound  was  stratified,  there  being  several 


82 


TURNER  GROUP  OF  EARTHWORKS 


alternate  layers  of  dark  earth  and  yellow  clay,  the  latter  being  much  the  thicker. 
In  the  dark  earth  strata,  traces  of  charcoal  and  ashes  were  seen. 

The  circular  wall  [see  ground  plan  and  cross-section,  figures  40,  41]  was  34 
inches  in  height,  30  inches  wide  at  its  base,  and  24  inches  at  its  top.  It  rested 
on  a  4-inch  layer  of  coarse  gravel  which  connected  with  the  gravel  surround¬ 
ing  the  central  earth  mound.  The  diameter  of  the  enclosure  within  the  wall 
was  21  feet. 

Not  far  from  the  center  of  the  small  interior  mound,  and  beneath 
the  stratum  of  coarse  gravel,  was  a  3-inch  layer  of  fine  sand  which 
covered  a  small  altar  (8).  The  basin  of  the  altar  was  2  feet  in 
length,  18  inches  in  width,  and  had  a  depth  at  the  sides  of  6  inches. 


Figure  40.  Cross-section  of  Mound  12:  1,  Clayey  loam;  2,  Layer 
earth  and  yellow  clay;  6,  Pebbles;  7,  Sand;  S,  Altar;  9,  Cavity 


Its  cavity  was  4  inches  deep,  and  contained  slightly  burnt  earth. 
The  floor  of  the  altar  was  burned  to  a  depth  of  3  inches,  its  entire 
thickness.  Continuing,  Dr.  Metz  says: 

On  removing  the  altar,  a  cavity  filled  with  fine  sand  was  discovered  be¬ 
neath.  The  length  of  this  cavity  was  12  inches,  width  10  inches.  A  single 
valve  of  a  unio  shell  was  found  in  the  sand  contained  in  the  cavity.  It  was 
placed  directly  under  the  floor  of  the  altar,  and  lay  upon  the  sand.  On  re¬ 
moving  the  sand,  the  depth  of  the  cavity  was  found  to  be  S  inches. 

This  cavity  or  basin  [number  9  of  the  cross-section],  was  moulded  in  the 
clay  upon  which  the  altar  rested.  The  imprints  of  the  fingers  of  the  ancient 
workmen  were  plainly  visible  upon  its  sides  and  bottom.  Its  form  somewhat 
resembled  the  impression  of  a  human  foot  clothed  with  a  moccasin. 

To  the  northwest  of  the  altar  at  a  distance  of  30  inches  was  an  irregular 
layer  of  dark,  tenacious  clay  (10),  having  a  depth  of  4  inches,  and  extending 
several  feet  in  width  and  length.  It  showed  no  evidence  of  having  been  burned 

The  circular  stone  wall  was  built  principally  of  large  river  stones 
with  occasional  large  limestones  interspersed,  some  of  them  being 
12  inches  in  length  and  width,  and  3  to  5  inches  in  thickness. 
A  portion  of  this  wall  is  shown  in  the  photograph,  figure  42.  The 


HAMILTON  COUNTY,  OHIO 


83 


spaces  between  the  stones  were  packed  with  sand  and  gravel. 
The  inner  edge  of  the  wall  was  perpendicular.  The  outer  edge 
sloped  inward  gradually  from  its  base  to  its  top  (4,  figure  40) .  The 
wall  formed  nearly  an  exact  circle,  and  was  uniform  throughout 
except  on  the  southwest  side,  where  it  had  been  disturbed  by  two 
burials,  at  least  one  of  which  was  probably  intrusive. 

From  the  inner  side  of  the  southern  portion  of  the  wall,  a  single  layer  of 
stones  extended  to  the  south  corner  of  the  altar.  Above  this  row  of  stones, 
and  supported  by  the  layer  of  gravel  extending  under  the  small  interior  mound, 
was  a  second  line  of  stones  reaching  to  the  edge  of  this  inner  mound.  On  the 


of  stones;  3,  Sand;  4,  Circular  wall;  5,  Alternate  layers  of  dark 
beneath  altar;  10,  Dark  clay;  11,  Clay. 


southwest  side  of  the  wall,  three  courses  of  stones  had  been  removed  for  a 
distance  of  4  feet,  and  in  the  space  thus  formed,  and  on  a  stratum  of  fine  sand, 
26  inches  below  the  surface,  the  flexed  skeleton  of  an  adult  was  found  [figure 
41,  a],  the  bones  of  which  were  much  decayed,  and  the  skull  in  fragments. 

On  the  west  side,  the  wall  was  again  interrupted.  For  a  space  of  7  feet,  five 
courses  of  stone  had  been  removed,  and  an  adult  skeleton  [b]  in  a  horizontal 
position  resting  on  a  bed  of  coarse  gravel  was  unearthed.  Near  the  knees  lay 
portions  of  a  large  marine  shell.  The  stones  which  had  evidently  been  removed 
to  make  way  for  the  two  interments  were  not  found. 

Just  outside  the  wall  in  the  western  portion  of  the  mound  were 
two  skeletons  lying  side  by  side  in  a  horizontal  position,  heads  to 
the  north.  The  one  nearer  the  wall  (c)  was  evidently  an  adult 
male;  the  other  (d),  a  youth.  At  each  hand  of  the  former  lay  a 
copper  spool-shaped  ear-ornament.  At  the  left  hand  of  skeleton 
d,  rested  another  copper  ear-ornament,  and  at  intervals  along  the 
right  arm  were  several  shell  beads.  At  the  right  hand  were  a  con¬ 
siderable  number  of  shell  beads,  and  near  the  pelvis  a  portion  of 
a  second  ear-ornament.  A  large  shell  vessel,  with  its  smaller  end 


84 


TURNER  GROUP  OF  EARTHWORKS 


downward,  rested  near  the  head.  Four  canine  teeth  of  the  bear, 
perforated  for  attachment,  were  also  found  with  this  skeleton. 

Continuing  the  excavations  to  the  southward  outside  the  wall, 
several  additional  burials  were  uncovered. 

Skeleton  e,  of  an  adult,  was  found  in  a  flexed  position  about  10  inches  from 
the  wall.  It  was  badly  decayed,  and  the  skull  was  in  fragments.  An  adult 
skeleton  [f],  8  feet  to  the  southeast,  was  also  in  a  flexed  position,  3  feet  from 


Plan  of  Mound  12:  a-i,  Graves  containing  skeletons:  4,  Circular  wall; 

5,  Small  interior  mound;  6,  Pebbles;  8,  Altar; 

10,  Dark  clay. 

the  surface.  Skeleton  g,  of  an  adult,  lay  in  a  horizontal  position,  head  to  the 
northeast,  on  a  pavement  of  flat  stones,  7  feet  long  and  3  feet  wide.  A  copper 
ear-ornament  lay  at  each  hand,  and  a  copper  blade  [figure  44,  a],  at  the  right 
shoulder;  at  the  neck  and  shoulder  were  many  shell  beads.  An  adult  skeleton 
[h]  in  a  flexed  position,  a  few  feet  northeast  of  the  latter,  and  3  feet  from  the 
surface,  was  much  decayed.  No  artifacts  were  found  with  it.  Skeleton  i,  an 
adult,  4  feet  to  the  south  of  the  wall,  at  a  depth  of  2  feet,  lay  on  a  bed  of 
coarse  gravel,  4  inches  in  thickness.  A  plate  of  mica  rested  at  the  neck  and 
shoulder. 


HAMILTON  COUNTY,  OHIO 


85 


To  the  northeast  of  the  wall  at  three  different  points,  portions  of  skeletons 
were  unearthed.  At  one  place,  a  right  femur  and  part  of  a  pelvis,  and  at  a 
distance  of  4  feet  a  left  femur  and  part  of  another  pelvis  were  found.  At  a 
point  6  feet  to  the  south  was  a  single  femur,  unaccompanied  by  other  bones. 

With  all  the  skeletons  occupying  a  horizontal  position,  relics  were  recovered, 
and  great  care  seems  to  have  been  taken  in  their  interment,  as  they  were  placed 
either  on  a  bed  of  sand,  gravel,  or  flat  stones.  While  with  those  that  were 
interred  in  a  doubled-up  position,  no  relics  were  found,  nor  was  there  evidence 
of  special  care  being  exercised  in  their  burial.  We  failed  to  discover  a  single 
potsherd  or  a  flint  chip  in  the  entire  mound. 

The  earth  composing  the  greater  part  of  the  mound  seems  to  have  been 
taken  from  the  surrounding  plain.  It  was  homogeneous  throughout.  Upon 


Figure  42 

Section  of  Mound  12  showing  circular  wall. 


the  slope  of  the  tumulus  were  several  stumps,  one  of  which,  an  oak,  measured 
12  feet  in  circumference. 

Mound  13.  This  is  the  smaller  of  the  two  mounds  in  the  ele¬ 
vated  circle.  It  was  approximately  30  feet  in  diameter,  and  2 
feet  high.  Upon  removing  the  earth,  a  circular  pavement  of  flat 
river  stones,  15  feet  in  diameter,  was  found.  This  rested  on  a  layer 
of  sand,  8  inches  deep.  The  clay  beneath  the  sand  showed  no 
evidence  of  having  been  disturbed. 

Mound  14.  This  is  the  smallest  and  the  most  northern  of  the 
seven  connected  mounds  within  the  great  enclosure.  It  was  ap- 


86 


TURNER  GROUP  OF  EARTHWORKS 


proximately  30  feet  in  diameter,  and  had  been  reduced  to  a  height 
of  but  2  feet.  Only  a  portion  of  the  surrounding  wall  remained, 
most  of  it  having  undoubtedly  been  destroyed  by  plowing.  Near 
its  center  was  unearthed  a  small  square  altar  of  burnt  clay,  28 
inches  in  diameter.  The  depth  of  its  basin  was  7  inches,  and  the 
slope  of  its  sides,  9  inches.  The  stratum  above  the  altar  was 
clean  gravel,  having  a  thickness  of  8  inches,  upon  which  rested  a 
12  inch  layer  of  soil.  The  basin  of  the  altar  was  filled  with  yellow 
clay. 

Mound  15.  Upon  the  river  bank,  about  900  feet  north  of  the 
great  enclosure,  is  a  mound,  the  greater  part  of  which  has  been 


Chipped  knife  blades  and  a  gorget,  taken  with  others  from  a  cache  in  Mound  15. 

(About  1/2.) 


destroyed  by  the  washing  away  of  the  bank  during  freshets.  The 
dimensions  of  the  remaining  portion  as  given  by  Dr.  Metz  are  as 
follows:  height  6  feet,  diameter  25  feet,  length  65  feet.  Its  sur¬ 
face  was  originally  paved  with  round  pebbles  which  seem  to  have 
been  carefully  selected  both  as  to  size  and  color.  They  average 
a  little  larger  than  a  goose  egg,  and  are  of  a  bluish  shade.  They 
were  compactly  laid,  resembling  in  this  respect  the  pebble  pave¬ 
ments  of  modern  streets.  The  center  of  the  mound  was  composed 
largely  of  kitchen  refuse  to  the  height  of  about  3  feet,  over  which 
had  been  placed  a  2-inch  stratum  of  sand.  This,  in  turn,  had 
been  covered  with  about  10  inches  of  hard  dark  earth.  The  re- 


HAMILTON  COUNTY,  OHIO 


87 


maining  portion  was  made  up  principally  of  clayey  loam,  and 
gravel.  A  few  small  hearths  of  river  stones  were  found  also. 

Animal  bones,  potsherds,  broken  implements,  flint  flakes, 
pieces  of  mica,  etc.,  were  common.  About  twenty-five  calcite 
gorgets  (so-called)  of  the  form  shown  in  figure  43,  c,  several  of 
which  were  broken,  were  taken  from  a  cache  in  this  mound.  With 
them  were  seven  thin,  finely  chipped  blades,  of  the  type  figured 
in  a,  and  one  leaf-shaped  blade,  b,  of  the  above  figure.  These 


* 

Figure  44 


Copper  blades  from  graves:  a,  With  Skeleton  7,  Mound  12;  b,  Grave  5, 
Burial  Place  e;  c,  With  skeleton  of  child,  Mound  11.  (2/3.) 


were  found  with  pieces  of  worked  antler,  probably  the  remains  of 
their  handles. 

Mounds  to  the  West  of  Elevated  Circle.  The  largest  of  these, 
Marriott  mound  1,  was  opened  in  1884  by  Dr.  Metz  and  Profes¬ 
sor  Putnam,  and  an  account  of  the  exploration  was  published.1 

At  the  time  of  the  exploration  the  mound  was  2  feet  high,  and 
60  feet  in  diameter.  Its  height  had  been  reduced  by  plowing,  and 
the  layer  of  stones  which  had  covered  the  lower  portion  had  been 


1  F.  W.  Putnam,  The  Marriott  Mound  No.  1  and  Its  Contents ,  Reports  of  the  Peabody  Mu* 
seum  of  Am.  Arch,  and  Eth.,  Vol.  Ill,  pp.  449-466. 


88 


TURNER  GROUP  OF  EARTHWORKS 


disturbed.  Near  its  center  was  a  rude  altar  or  basin  of  clay  which 
contained  ashes,  charcoal,  burnt  acorns,  and  pieces  of  burnt  bones, 
some  of  which  were  probably  fragments  of  implements.  There 
were  also  several  beads  of  shell,  and  other  ornaments.  Near  the 
altar  were  two  hearths  or  areas  of  burnt  clay  and  stones,  8  to  10 
inches  in  depth.  Several  bone  implements,  flaked  knives,  etc., 
were  found  in  the  ashes. 

Near  the  center  of  the  mound  was  a  group  of  four  graves,  each 
outlined  with  flat  limestones.  The  largest  of  these  graves  con¬ 
tained  a  skeleton  lying  at  length,  head  to  the  northeast.  The 
smallest  contained  a  complete  skull  with  under  jaw.  A  hole 
1  inch  in  diameter  had  been  bored  through  the  occipital  bone, 
near  the  margin  of  the  foramen  magnum.  The  position  of  the 
holes  suggests  that  a  cord,  for  the  purpose  of  suspension,  may 
have  been  passed  through  it  and  out  of  the  great  foramen.  Two 
other  small  graves  were  nearby,  each  containing  a  skeleton  out 
of  natural  order. 

A  plate  of  native  copper,  ear-ornaments  of  this  metal,  perforated 
teeth  of  the  bear,  two  of  them  inlaid  with  a  large  pearl,  many 
pearl  beads,  and  various  implements  were  found  with  the  skeletons. 

The  construction  of  the  mound,  the  forms  of  the  graves  and  the 
artifacts,  all  indicate  that  this  was  probably  contemporary  with 
the  other  earthworks  of  the  group. 

Some  400  feet  to  the  northeast  of  the  above  tumulus  is  Marriott 
mound  2,  much  reduced  by  cultivation.  This  proved  of  little 
interest.  About  the  same  distance  to  the  southeast,  and  occupy¬ 
ing  one  of  the  points  of  the  triangle  formed  by  the  three  tumuli, 
is  Cemetery  mound,  so-called  because  it  is  located  in  a  private 
cemetery.  This  has  never  been  explored.  Still  farther  to  the 
west  are  the  remains  of  a  small  mound  which  has  been  destroyed. 

ARTIFACTS  IN  GENERAL 

Stone  Implements.  Comparatively  few  stone  implements  were 
found.  A  few  dozen  chipped  flint  knives  of  common  forms,  such 
as  can  be  picked  up  on  almost  any  site,  several  chipped  flint 
scrapers,  and  a  few  grinding  stones,  hammer-stones,  and  anvils 
were  obtained  during  the  general  digging.  No  chipped  flint 
arrowpoints  occurred,  which  is  especially  remarkable  considering 


HAMILTON  COUNTY,  OHIO 


89 


the  hundreds  found  at  the  Madisonville  site,  only  a  few  miles 
distant.  There  were  no  “  snub-nose  ”  scrapers,  which  were  also 
common  at  Madisonville.  By  far  the  most  abundant  flint  im¬ 
plement  is  the  flaked  knife,  figure  10,  a.  Scores  of  these  were 
recovered,  usually  from  graves  but  many  were  found  in  general 
digging.  Only  three  or  four  stone  adze  blades  were  collected. 
One  of  these  accompanied  an  intrusive  burial.  The  others  were 
found  under  conditions  which  render  it  doubtful  if  they  were  left 
by  the  Earthwork  Builders. 

There  were  no  grooved  axes  and  but  few  of  the  grooveless  variety; 
only  two  of  the  latter  were  recovered  under  conditions  which 


Figure  45 

Stone  axe  blades  from  post-holes:  a,  Mound  5;  b,  Mound  4.  (1/2.) 

render  it  certain  that  they  belonged  to  the  people  under  consider¬ 
ation.  These  are  illustrated  in  figure  45,  and  are  both  from  post- 
holes.  One  of  them  (a)  is  from  mound  5,  the  other  from  mound  4. 

Implements  of  copper  seemed  to  be  confined  to  adze  blades, 
and  awls  or  pins.  Three  of  the  former  are  shown  in  figure  44,  all 
from  graves. 

Textile  Fabrics.  Numerous  small  fragments  of  twined-woven 
cloth,  preserved  by  salts  of  copper,  were  adhering  to  a  few  ear- 
ornaments  and  other  objects  of  this  metal  from  certain  graves. 
They  all  seem  to  be  of  the  variety  shown  enlarged  in  figure  46, 
which  was  common  over  a  wide  area.  Other  types  of  twined  and 
checker  weaving,  such  as  were  taken  from  the  Hopewell,  Liberty, 


90 


TURNER  GROUP  OF  EARTHWORKS 


and  other  mound  groups,  were  doubtless  also  made  and  used  by 
the  people  who  occupied  this  site. 

Pottery.  During  the  exploration  of  this  group  of  earthworks, 
two  to  three  bushels  of  potsherds  were  recovered.  These  were 
found  principally  in  the  refuse  piles,  in  the  general  digging  of  the 
mounds,  on  the  hearths,  and  among  the  ashes  of  the  mounds  and 
embankments.  Sherds  were  found  with  several  burials,  but  only 
two  of  these  vessels  could  be  restored.  They  are  shown  on  plate 
7,  c,  and  plate  22,  d.  Not  one  fragment  of  pottery  of  the  Madi- 
sonville  type  was  found.  Pots  with  ears  were  apparently  unknown 
to  the  builders  of  these  earthworks.1 

A  most  instructive  group  of  vessels  taken  from  the  hearth  near 
the  center  of  mound  1  (figures  12  and  13)  is  illustrated  in  plate  23, 


Figure  46 

Cloth  enlarged  three  diameters  to  show  type  of  weaving.  Contact  with 
copper  ear-ornaments  had  preserved  a  few  pieces  of  this  twined-woven 
fabric. 


and  in  g,  h,  i,  plate  22.  The  four  vessels  represent  types  in  use 
at  the  same  period,  and  as  good  fortune  will  have  it,  they  belong 
to  the  three  principal  groups  of  pottery  from  this  site. 

The  two  examples  figured  at  the  bottom  of  plate  22  are  ordinary 
cooking  pots.  Like  most  of  the  coarser  pottery  from  this  site, 
they  are  made  of  clay,  sparingly  tempered  with  crushed  stone. 
The  greater  portion  of  the  surface  of  each  is  covered  with  cord 
markings,  produced  probably  by  the  twine-covered  potter's  pad¬ 
dle  used  in  their  construction.  The  upper  portion  of  the  body  of 
i,  is  separated  into  four  divisions  by  somewhat  depressed  bands 
extending  downward  from  the  roughly  smoothed  neck.  A  smaller 
pot  with  similar  decorations,  from  a  mound  in  Wisconsin,  is 

1  For  examples  of  Madisonville  pottery,  see  Indian  Village  Site  and  Cemetery  Near  Madison- 
ville,  Ohio ,  Papers  of  the  Peabody  Museum,  Vol.  VIII,  No.  1,  plates  22-24. 


Peabody  Museum  Papers 


Vol.  VIII,  No.  3,  Plate  22 


Pottery  vessels:  a,  e,  Mound  4,  general  digging;  b,  f,  Burial  Place,  general  digging;  c,  Trench 
a,  embankment  of  the  Great  Enclosure;  g,  h,  i,  Central  fireplace  of  Mound  1.  (About  1/5.) 


/ 


HAMILTON  COUNTY,  OHIO 


91 


figured  by  Holmes.1  Probably  two-thirds  of  the  potsherds  from 
the  Turner  Group  are  of  this  crude  variety,  without  decoration 
except  occasionally  at  the  neck  or  near  the  rim,  as  illustrated  in 
plate  22,  d,  and  plate  24,  d-f,  j,  k,  and  having  the  usual  cord 
markings.  In  figure  47,  a,  c,  are  shown  outlines  of  two  of  the 
largest,  each  restored  from  a  single  fragment  of  the  rim  and  part 
of  the  body.  The  approximate  capacity  of  each  is  twelve  to 
fifteen  gallons. 

The  third  and  fourth  vessels  from  the  hearth  of  mound  1, 
although  of  entirely  different  shape,  evidently  belong  to  the  same 
general  group.  The  first  of  these  is  shown  in  plate  22,  g.  It  is 
made  of  the  same  material  as  the  others,  is  shallow,  with  rounded 


Figure  47 

Outlines  of  large  cooking  pots  restored  from  fragments.  The  approximate 
capacity  of  the  two  largest  is  twelve  to  fifteen  gallons. 


bottom,  and  the  body  has  six  lobes.  Unlike  other  vessels  of  this 
shape  it  has  no  surface  decorations.  A  second  example  of  this 
type  with  four  lobes,  and  bearing  characteristic  surface  decora¬ 
tions,  is  illustrated  in  b.  Fragments  of  a  number  of  this  general 
form  were  found.  The  fourth  vessel  from  the  hearth  is  figured 
on  plate  23.  It  is  nearly  cylindrical,  with  flat  bottom,  and  is 
ornamented  with  angular  bands  filled  with  the  usual  zigzag 
pattern. 

Many  fragments  of  ware  bearing  this  type  of  decoration  were 
recovered.  They  were  not,  however,  nearly  so  abundant  as  the 
cord-marked  group  above  referred  to.  Pottery  vessels  with  this 
style  of  decoration  were  made  in  a  great  variety  of  shapes.  The 
designs  were  usually  composed  of  bands  or  circles  outlined  with  in- 

1  Aboriginal  Pottery  of  the  Eastern  United  States ,  W.  H.  Holmes,  Twentieth  Report,  Bureau 
of  American  Ethnology,  plate  clxx,  b. 


92 


TURNER  GROUP  OF  EARTHWORKS 


cised  lines,  and  filled  with  zigzag  patterns  which  were  not  made 
with  a  roulette,  as  suggested  by  Holmes,  but  with  a  tool  more  or 
less  gouge-shaped,  having  a  plain  or  notched  edge,  which  was  pressed 
against  the  soft  clay  with  a  rocking  motion,  each  opposite  corner 
being  raised  and  slightly  advanced  alternately,  the  tool  not  being 
wholly  lifted  from  the  vessel.  Potsherds  showing  these  markings 
were  found  in  nearly  all  the  mounds  of  the  group,  also  in  the  ceme¬ 
tery,  and  beneath  the  embankment  of  the  great  enclosure.  Ex¬ 
amples  are  illustrated  on  plate  24,  j-1,  n-p.  While  most  of  the 
sherds  of  this  general  class  have  the  zigzag  pattern  as  a  part  of 
the  decoration,  it  is  replaced  in  a  few  instances  by  circular  or 
square  depressions,  the  former  being  shown  in  m.  Another  vessel 
having  the  zigzag  pattern  over  nearly  its  entire  surface  is  illustrated 
in  plate  7,  c.  It  was  found  in  grave  9-b,  in  the  cemetery  of  the 
great  enclosure  by  Mr.  Saville  in  1890. 

A  portion  of  a  very  interesting  vase,  about  G  inches  in  height, 
from  the  Liberty  Group  of  mounds,  is  in  the  Museum  collections. 
It  is  of  a  depressed  double  globular  form.  The  entire  lower  section 
is  covered  with  a  design  composed  of  triangles  made  up  of  bands 
|  of  an  inch  wide,  filled  with  zigzag  markings.  The  upper  section 
is  somewhat  smaller  than  the  lower,  and  is  ornamented  with  a 
zone  in  which  are  six  highly  conventionalized  bird  figures,  the 
space  within  the  incised  outlines  of  each  bird  being  filled  with  the 
usual  zigzag  pattern.  Each  alternate  bird  is  reversed.  Both  the 
figures  and  grouping  remind  one  strongly  of  similar  designs  upon 
Peruvian  textiles.  Illustrations  of  a  few  examples  of  this  group 
of  earthenware  taken  from  the  mounds  of  the  Great  Earthwork 
Builders  in  Ohio,  Indiana,  and  Michigan,  are  brought  together 
by  Holmes,  and  should  be  compared  with  those  described  in  this 
paper.1 

Squier  and  Davis  found  a  number  of  these  vessels  on  the  altar 
of  mound  3  in  Mound  City,  two  of  which  they  figured;  and  a  flat- 
bottomed  vase,  closely  resembling  in  form  a  modern  terra-cotta 
flower  pot,  with  its  outer  surface  covered  with  zigzag  markings, 
was  taken  from  the  altar  of  the  great  mound  of  the  Hopewell 
Group.  Many  fragments  of  vessels  having  a  cross-hatched  band 
near  the  rim,  beneath  which  was  usually  an  encircling  row  of  dots 
or  depressions,  were  found.  These  apparently  belong  to  the  same 

1  Holmes,  ibid.,  figure  74  and  plates  clxix,  clxxi,  clxxii. 


Peabody  Museum  Papers 


Vol.  VIII,  No.  3.  Plate  23 


Pottery  vessel  from  central  fireplace  of  Mound  1. 
(About  1/2.) 


HAMILTON  COUNTY,  OHIO 


93 


general  group  as  the  above,  for  the  forms  and  material  are  the 
same,  although  the  ornamentation  differs  in  detail. 

In  addition  to  these  there  are  fragments  of  vessels  with  flat 
bases,  and  upright  or  flaring  sides.  A  nearly  perfect  specimen  of 
the  former  kind  has  already  been  referred  to  (plate  23).  There  is 
also  shown  on  plate  24,  r,  the  bottom  of  a  vase  having  four  feet. 
Ten  feet  of  similar  vessels  were  found  during  the  explorations  of 
mounds  3  and  4,  and  beneath  the  embankment  of  the  great  en¬ 
closure.  Sherds  of  various  food  bowls,  with  wide  rims  and  without 
decorations,  were  recovered  (plate  22,  a,  c,  and  plate  24,  h) ;  and 
also  a  very  few  fragments  showing  ornamental  paddle  marks,  the 
largest  of  which,  with  the  form  of  the  pot  restored,  is  illustrated 
in  plate  22,  f.  A  small  fragment  having  a  more  elaborate  pattern 
may  be  seen  in  plate  24,  q.  There  were  also  several  sherds  similar 
to  s,  of  the  same  plate.  Sherds  showing  ornamental  paddle  marks 
were  extremely  rare.  Such  vessels  may  have  been  brought  from 
the  southern  Appalachian  region,  or  they  may  possibly  have  been 
made  by  captured  women  from  the  South. 

Some  of  the  clay  used  in  making  the  smaller  and  more  delicate 
vessels  was  tempered  with  sand  instead  of  crushed  stone.  The 
writer  has  found  no  evidence  of  the  use  of  crushed  shell  as  a  tem¬ 
pering  material  by  the  builders  of  these  earthworks,  as  was  the 
custom  among  the  later  Indians  of  the  neighboring  Madisonville 
site. 

The  pottery  of  the  builders  of  this  mound  group  shows  a  great 
variety  of  form,  size,  and  decoration.  The  patterns  upon  some 
of  the  sherds,  although  more  crude,  seem  to  belong  to  the  same 
general  class  as  the  designs  upon  the  hollow  stone  effigies  illus¬ 
trated  on  plate  19.  There  can  be  little  doubt  that  if  the  ex¬ 
plorations  of  the  Hopewell,  Mound  City,  Liberty,  and  other 
well-known  sites  of  southern  Ohio  had  been  as  prolonged  and  as 
carefully  conducted  as  those  of  the  Turner  Group,  an  equal  number 
and  variety  of  potsherds  would  have  been  found. 

Mr.  Holmes  was  the  first  to  recognize  that  the  few  known  vases 
and  sherds,  bearing  the  characteristic  zigzag  ornamentation  above 
described,  which  were  obtained  from  the  mound  area  of  the  states 
bordering  Ohio,  should  be  attributed  to  the  Great  Earthwork 
Builders,  whose  center  of  development  was  in  the  southern  portion 
of  that  state. 


94 


TURNER  GROUP  OF  EARTHWORKS 


Mr.  Holmes  writes  as  follows:1 

It  would  seem  that  the  builders  of  the  great  mound  groups  about  Chilli- 
cothe,  the  enterprising  people  who  gathered  stores  of  shells  from  the  Atlantic, 
copper  from  Lake  Superior,  flint  from  the  lower  Ohio  Valley,  and  obsidian 
from  the  Rocky  Mountains,  Oregon,  or  Mexico,  were  identical  with  or  closely 
related  to  tribes  scattered  over  a  large  part  of  a  region  including  parts  of  Ohio, 
Indiana,  Illinois,  Iowa,  Michigan,  and  Wisconsin.  Though  the  pottery  of 
this  group  of  people  is  not  nearly  so  highly  developed  as  is  that  of  the  southern 
mound-builders,  as  for  example  those  of  Cahokia  in  Illinois,  and  of  Etowah  in 
Georgia,  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  their  general  culture  was  of  an  order 
equally  advanced. 

With  respect  to  the  origin  of  the  great  numbers  of  obsidian  implements 
found  in  the  Hopewell  mounds,  it  may  be  well  to  note  that  there  is  no  trace 
of  Mexican  characters  in  the  pottery  of  these  mounds;  besides,  the  general 
trend  of  the  group  of  ware  here  associated  is  from  Chillieothe  toward  the  north¬ 
west,  suggesting  the  upper  Missouri  region  or  the  valley  of  the  Columbia  as 
the  source  of  the  obsidian.  The  significance  of  this  observation  is  emphasized 
by  the  discovery  of  fragments  of  rouletted  ware  in  the  Yellowstone  National 
Park,  where  great  beds  of  obsidian  are  found.  .  .  .  These  fragments  were 
brought  in  by  Colonel  P.  W.  Norris,  Superintendent  of  the  Park,  in  1880. 
They  represent  a  large  jar  or  pot  with  upright  neck.  The  material  is  coarsely 
silicious,  and  the  walls  are  thick.  Just  below  the  rim  is  a  line  of  nodes  made  by 
punching  with  a  round  implement  from  within,  and  there  are  indistinct  traces 
of  roulette-markings.  These  pieces  have  a  close  analogy  with  the  roulette- 
stamped  ware  of  Naples,  Illinois,  and  therefore  with  the  whole  rouletted  group. 

It  is  an  interesting  fact  that  much  of  the  pottery  from  this 
mound  group  of  the  cooking  pot  class  is  very  nearly  duplicated 
in  material,  form,  and  decoration  by  the  archaic  Algonquian 
pottery  from  the  graves  and  shell  heaps  of  New  England.2  The 
more  or  less  curved  chisel-like  implement  with  plain  or  notched 
edge  was  used  in  the  same  peculiar  manner  in  making  the  char¬ 
acteristic  decorations  of  both  regions,  and  many  of  the  other  forms 
of  ornament  are  similar.  This  resemblance  may  possibly  be  more 
than  casual.  In  this  connection  it  may  be  of  interest  to  note  that 
the  “  monitor  ”  pipe  of  the  type  illustrated  in  figure  11,  c,  is  also 
not  uncommon  in  the  older  graves  in  New  England. 

1  Holmes,  ibid.,  pp.  194,  201. 

2  C.  C.  Willoughby,  Pottery  of  the  Xeiv  England  Indians,  Putnam  Anniversary  \  olume,  pp. 
83-101. 


Peabody  Museum  Papers 


Vol.  VIII,  No.  3,  Plate  24 


Potsherds  from  the  Turner  Group  showing  typical  decorations. 


HAMILTON  COUNTY,  OHIO 


95 


CONCLUSION 

General  Summary.  The  people  who  constructed  the  Turner 
Group  of  Earthworks  belonged  to  that  great  culture  group  whose 
center  was  in  southwestern  Ohio,  and  whose  remains  are  found  as 
far  north  as  Grand  Rapids,  Michigan,  as  far  west  as  Naples, 
Illinois,  and  as  far  south  as  Franklin  in  central  Tennessee.  In 
the  height  of  their  power  they  undoubtedly  dominated  a  consider¬ 
able  portion  of  this  region,  and  their  influence  probably  extended 
beyond  these  limits. 

The  center  of  population  was  apparently  the  valleys  of  the 
three  principal  rivers  of  southwestern  Ohio:  the  Great  and  Little 
Miami,  the  Scioto,  and  their  tributaries. 

The  earthworks  which  mark  the  sites  of  their  former  occupancy 
are  sometimes  very  extensive.  The  embankments  form  various 
figures,  including  squares,  parallelograms,  circles,  and  covered 
ways,  which  are  usually  accompanied  by  tumuli  and  other  mounds. 
The  relation  between  these  remains  and  the  great  hill-top  forti¬ 
fications,  of  which  Fort  Ancient  is  perhaps  the  best  example,  has 
not  been  definitely  worked  out.  It  is  very  improbable  that  the 
group  of  artifacts  belonging  to  what  is  commonly  known  as  the 
“  Fort  Ancient  Culture  ”  was  connected  in  any  way  with  the 
builders  of  that  stupendous  earthwork.  This  culture  is  the  same 
as  that  of  the  great  site  near  Madisonville,  which  is  proto-historic. 

The  occupancy  of  southern  Ohio  by  the  Great  Earthwork 
Builders  must  have  covered  a  considerable  period  of  time.  This 
would  account  for  the  few  local  differences  in  their  cultural  de¬ 
velopment. 

Their  occupation  of  this  region  preceded  that  of  another  group 
of  Indians  of  a  lower  grade  of  culture,  whose  remains  are  found 
over  a  large  part  of  southern  Ohio,  and  whose  largest  village  and 
cemetery,  so  far  as  known,  were  near  Madisonville.  The  last 
remnants  of  this  later  group,  who  may  have  been  the  Monso- 
pelea  1  were  apparently  in  southern  Ohio  when  first  heard  of  by 

1  Dr.  John  Swanton,  in  a  letter  to  the  writer,  calls  attention  to  a  tribe  “  which  may  possibly 
be  that  formerly  in  occupancy  of  the  Madisonville  site,  since  its  history  fits  in  rather  well  with 
what  may  be  inferred  from  the  Madisonville  remains.  This  is  the  Monsopelea,  which,  when 
first  heard  of  by  the  French,  was  in  southern  Ohio,  but  soon  moved  down  to  the  Mississippi, 
and  ultimately  united,  in  part  at  least,  with  the  Taensa  Indians.  In  Hanna’s  Wilderness  Trail 
most  that  we  know  about  them  has  been  brought  together  (Vol.  II,  pp.  97-108).  A  note  on 
one  of  the  early  maps  tells  us  that  when  they  reached  the  Mississippi  they  had  already  obtained 


96 


TURNER  GROUP  OF  EARTHWORKS 


the  French.  They  in  turn  were  succeeded  by  the  Miami,  and 
later  by  the  Shawnee. 

The  Turner  Group  of  Earthworks  is  only  four  miles  distant 
from  the  Madisonville  site.1  The  differences  in  culture,  however, 
are  very  marked.  The  pottery  of  the  Madisonville  people  be¬ 
longs  to  Holmes’s  central  Mississippi  group.  Nearly  all  of  the 
cooking  pots  were  supplied  with  ears  for  suspension.  The  Turner 
Group  pottery  is  without  ears,  was  not  made  for  suspension,  and 
belongs  to  a  group  developed  apparently  from  an  early  form 
closely  resembling  the  archaic  Algonquian  type  of  the  northern 
Atlantic  Coast  Indians.  Hundreds  of  finely  chipped  arrowpoints 
were  found  at  Madisonville;  none  was  recovered  during  the  work 
at  the  Turner  Group.  “  Snub-nose  ”  scrapers  were  abundant 
at  Madisonville;  none  was  obtained  at  the  Turner  Group.  These 
are  only  minor  differences,  of  course,  but  they  show  that  the  cul¬ 
tures  of  these  two  people  were  very  unlike,  even  when  applied  to 
many  objects  in  nearly  universal  use. 

Dr.  Hooton’s  study  of  the  skeletal  remains  shows  that  physically 
this  people  may  be  classed  with  certain  Algonquian  tribes.  They 
were  prevailingly  long  headed  and  differed  materially  from  the 
people  of  Madisonville.  From  the  figurines  we  learn  that  the 
common  dress  of  the  men  seems  to  have  been  the  breech-cloth, 
worn  without  hanging  ends.  It  was  probably  of  dressed  skin, 
colored  red.  They  sometimes  wore  moccasins  of  the  Algonquian 
type,  fitted  with  short  leggings.  The  hair  of  the  older  men  was 
collected  in  a  knot  above  the  forehead.  The  warriors  shaved  the 
sides  of  their  head,  the  remaining  hair  being  cut  somewhat  short, 
and  worn  in  a  ridge  extending  from  the  forehead  backward  across 
the  crown,  after  the  manner  of  the  Sauk  and  Fox,  and  other 
tribes.  The  women  wore  the  blanket  skirt,  wrapped  around  the 
hips  and  secured  by  tucking  in  one  corner  at  the  waist.  The  hair 
of  the  matrons  was  parted,  and  gathered  into  a  chignon  at  the 
back  of  the  head.  They  wore  what  appears  to  be  low  shoes  of  the 
same  form  as  the  woven  grass  shoes  from  the  Kentucky  caves. 

firearms.  Hanna  places  them  a  little  east  of  Madisonville,  but  they  are  assigned  eight  villages 
on  the  Franquelin  map,  so  that  one  of  them  may  have  been  farther  west.  Their  name  appears 
to  be  Algonquian,  but  they  united  with  a  people  of  the  Natchez  connection.  As  yet,  we  must 
admit  that  we  do  not  know  to  what  group  they  really  belonged.” 

1  For  a  description  of  these  remains,  see  Indian  Village  Site  and  Cemetery  near  Madisonville, 
Ohio ,  by  E.  A.  Hooton,  with  notes  on  the  artifacts  by  C.  C.  Willoughby,  Peabody  Museum 
Papers,  Vol.  VIII,  No.  1. 


HAMILTON  COUNTY,  OHIO 


97 


Practically  nothing  was  learned  about  their  habitations.  It  is 
doubtful  if  they  were  very  substantial.  There  is  a  possibility  that 
the  embankment  of  the  great  enclosure  may  have  marked  the  site 
of  earth-covered  dwellings.  That  structures  of  some  kind,  per¬ 
haps  of  a  religious  or  semi-sacred  character,  formerly  occupied 
many  of  the  mound  sites  is  evident  from  the  presence  of  numerous 
post-holes.  It  is  probable  that  some  of  these  structures,  perhaps 
the  ones  which  occupied  the  sites  of  mounds  3  and  4,  served  as 
store  houses  for  tribute  and  other  property  of  chiefs,  which  was 
sacrificed  upon  the  altars  at  their  death,  the  buildings  destroyed, 
and  mounds  erected  over  the  remains. 

Smith,  writing  of  the  Virginia  Indians,  tells  us  that  in  a  thicket 
of  wood  near  Orapaks,  Powhatan  had  a  treasure  house,  fifty  to 
sixty  yards  in  length,  frequented  only  by  priests,  where  he  kept 
his  treasure,  such  as  skins,  beads,  pearls,  and  copper,  stored  up 
against  the  time  of  his  death  and  burial.  Here  also  was  his  store 
of  red  paint  for  ornament,  bows  and  arrows,  shields,  and  clubs. 
At  the  corners  of  the  house  stood  four  images  as  sentinels,  one  a 
dragon,  another  a  bear,  the  third  like  a  leopard,  and  the  fourth 
like  a  giant-like  man,  made  “  evill  favouredly  according  to  their 
best  workmanship.”  1 

If  these  Indians  possessed  a  stronghold,  it  must  have  been 
either  the  site  of  the  elevated  circle,  or  the  two  smaller  circles 
within  the  great  enclosure.  Each  of  the  embankments  of  the 
latter  was  bordered  by  a  trench  upon  its  inner  side,  the  usual  ac¬ 
companiment  of  embankments  supporting  palisades.  It  is  pos¬ 
sible  that  a  council  house  of  a  semi-public  nature  may  have  stood 
within  the  elevated  circle,  although  no  direct  evidence  of  this 
was  found. 

This  people  reached  a  high  degree  of  excellence  in  their  art 
designs.  In  this  line  they  were  probably  unsurpassed  by  any 
tribe  north  of  Mexico.  In  modeling,  relief  carving,  and  copper 
working  they  also  attained  high  proficiency.  As  traders  they  were 
enterprising  and  resourceful.  They  procured  obsidian,  probably 
from  the  Yellowstone;  shells  from  the  Florida  coast;  copper  from 
the  Lake  Superior  region;  and  mica  from  the  Appalachian  High¬ 
land.  While  no  ivory  artifacts  were  found  during  the  exploration 
of  this  group,  several  fine  carvings  of  this  material  were  taken  from 


1  Captain  John  Smith,  True  Travels,  Richmond  Edition,  1819,  p.  143. 


98 


TURNER  GROUP  OF  EARTHWORKS 


one  of  the  altars  of  the  Hopewell  mounds,  and  the  writer  has  ex¬ 
amined  a  beautifully  made  ivory  ring  from  a  mound  in  Indiana. 
These  were  probably  made  of  fossil  tusks  of  the  mammoth, 
which  may  not  have  been  brought  a  great  distance. 

So  far  as  the  religious  beliefs  of  the  people  are  concerned,  but 
little  was  learned.  That  the  horned  serpent  was  one  of  their 
principal  deities  is  indicated  by  the  mica  effigy  from  the  altar  of 
mound  4,  and  by  the  finding  of  parts  of  what  seems  to  be  a  larger 
representation  of  this  god  upon  the  central  altar  of  mound  3. 
The  great  Serpent  Mound  of  Adams  County,  situated  between 
the  Scioto  and  Miami  Rivers,  about  fifty  miles  to  the  east  of  the 
Turner  Group,  was  probably  one  of  their  chief  shrines. 

Like  so  many  important  works  of  this  interesting  prehistoric 
people,  the  Turner  Group  of  mounds  has  practically  disappeared 
under  the  destroying  hand  of  the  white  man.  The  elevated 
circle  and  a  part  of  the  graded  way  remain,  but  most  of  the  area 
which  includes  the  great  enclosure  is  now  an  immense  gravel  pit. 
During  a  recent  visit  by  the  writer,  steam  shovels  were  rapidly 
eating  westward  to  the  foot  of  the  graded  way.  Embankments, 
mounds,  graves,  and  many  feet  of  gravel  beneath  them,  have  gone 
to  form  new  road  beds,  another  and  a  more  prosaic  type  of  earth¬ 
work. 


THE  SKELETAL  REMAINS 

By  EARNEST  A.  HOOTON 

The  Collection  in  General.  The  skeletal  remains  from  the 
Turner  Group  of  Earthworks  now  forming  a  part  of  the  collec¬ 
tions  of  the  Peabody  Museum  represent  at  least  90  individuals. 
Eight  of  these  have  been  cremated;  17  are  the  remains  of  imma¬ 
ture  persons;  and  30  are  represented  by  such  scanty  fragments  that 
they  are  practically  useless  for  purposes  of  study.  The  remaining 
35  skeletons  are  all  in  a  fragmentary  condition.  Measurements 
of  a  few  long  bones  of  some,  and  incomplete  measurements  and 
observations  on  the  crania  of  others  were  taken  wherever  possible. 
Of  the  skeletons  measured  or  observed,  12  came  from  intrusive 
or  secondary  burials,  and  it  is  therefore  necessary  to  consider  them 
separately.  This  leaves  a  very  inadequate  series  upon  which  to 
base  conclusions.  One  can  place  little  confidence  in  the  chance 
that  such  a  small  sample  is  representative.  Under  the  circum¬ 
stances,  statistical  treatment  of  measurements  would  be  mislead¬ 
ing.  The  arithmetic  mean,  for  example,  of  such  a  short  series 
is  often  a  fictitious  figure  representing  not  a  single  observed  fre¬ 
quency.  If,  however,  a  high  degree  of  homogeneity  characterizes 
an  inadequate  series,  there  is  some  hope  of  its  being  representative. 

Measurements  and  observations  upon  the  material  presented 
here  have  all  been  taken  by  the  writer,  except  the  cranial  capaci¬ 
ties.  The  latter  were  measured  by  Miss  Ruth  0.  Sawtell,  ac¬ 
cording  to  Hrdlicka’s  method.  The  writer  is  also  indebted  to 
Miss  Sawtell  for  the  recording  of  the  data.  Measurements  con¬ 
form  to  the  International  Agreement  of  Monaco,  unless  other¬ 
wise  stated.  Observations  are  based  upon  the  system  devised 
by  Dr.  Ales  Hrdlicka. 

Some  time  before  1886,  Miss  C.  A.  Studley,  then  Assistant  in 
the  Museum,  prepared  a  report  upon  the  crania  from  the  intrusive 
pit  in  mound  3.  This  paper  consists  of  a  careful  account  of  the 
pathological  features  of  the  skulls  and  a  minute  description  of  the 
perforations  found  in  six  of  the  crania,  together  with  measure- 

99 


100 


TURNER  GROUP  OF  EARTHWORKS 


ments  and  observations  on  the  specimens.  It  includes  measure¬ 
ments  on  one  cranium,  number  32413,  which  I  have  been  unable 
to  find.  It  also  includes  many  measurements  which  I  have  been 
unable  to  take  on  the  crania  on  account  of  their  present  frag¬ 
mentary  condition.  Some  of  Miss  Studley’s  measurements  agree 
exactly  with  mine,  but  others  differ  to  the  extent  of  several  mil¬ 
limeters.  This  may  be  due  partially  to  the  fact  that  many  of 
these  crania  have  been  mended,  presumably  by  Miss  Studley, 
and  have  come  to  pieces,  necessitating  re-mending.  Many  of 

Age  and  Sex  Distribution 


Infants . Less  than  1  year  2-3  years  4-5  years  Total 

Number .  1  2  2  5 

Children .  6-8  years  9-10  years  11-12  years 

Number .  4  1  0  5 

Adolescents .  13-14  years  15-16  years  17-18  years 

Number .  0  2  3  5 

Sub-adults .  19-20  years 

Number:  male .  2  2 

“  female .  1  1 

Adults .  Young  Middle-aged  Old 

21-35  years  36-50  years  51-  years 

Number:  male .  1  27  13  41 

“  female .  1  9  4  14 

Adults  (age  doubtful) 

Number:  male  .  6 

“  female .  4 

“  sex  doubtful .  7 

Total  .  90 


them  are  somewhat  warped,  so  that  re-mending  may  have  changed 
the  dimensions;  but  aside  from  this  there  are  certain  divergences 
in  results  that  cannot  be  reconciled  except  on  the  assumption  of  a 
difference  in  methods  or  in  precision  of  instruments.  I  have  there¬ 
fore  refrained  from  utilizing  Miss  Studley’s  measurements.  I  also 
find  myself  disagreeing  with  her  in  respect  to  the  sex  of  one 
cranium,  number  32411,  which  I  judge  to  be  that  of  a  sub-adult 
female.  I  have  not  included  this  specimen  in  most  of  the  tabula¬ 
tions. 

In  most  of  the  tables  given  below,  percentage  distributions  of 
the  various  characters  have  been  omitted,  because  such  tabulated 


HAMILTON  COUNTY,  OHIO 


101 


percentages  are  likely  to  be  misleading  when  they  are  based  upon 
so  small  a  number  of  crania.  In  some  instances  where  there  is 
little  sex  difference  manifested  and  where  the  distribution  in  the 
two  series  of  male  crania  is  approximately  the  same,  percentage 
frequencies  for  the  combined  series  have  been  given. 

The  collection  includes  the  remains  of  15  children  and  adoles¬ 
cents  and  of  75  sub-adults  and  adults.  Of  the  latter,  49  are 
males,  19  females,  and  7  of  indeterminate  sex.  The  excess  of 
males  may  be  due  in  part  to  erroneous  sexing  caused  by  the  fact 
that  many  skeletons  are  represented  by  a  few  fragments  only, 
but  this  cause  is  not  sufficient  to  account  for  the  disproportions 
of  the  sexes. 

The  sex  characters  are,  for  the  most  part,  well  marked  and 
little  difficulty  was  encountered  in  determining  the  sex  of  fairly 
well-preserved  skeletons. 

Cranial  Deformation.  A  considerable  amount  of  post-mortem 
deformation  and  warping  has  occurred  in  many  of  the  crania  of 
these  series.  In  many  instances  this  renders  them  useless  for 
purposes  of  measurement. 

On  the  other  hand,  there  is  very  little  artificial  cranial  deforma¬ 
tion.  In  the  primary  series,  5  of  21  crania  show  a  slight  or  very 
slight  occipital  deformation,  in  no  case  sufficiently  marked  seri¬ 
ously  to  affect  the  measurements.  In  the  secondary  or  intrusive 
series  of  13  crania,  one  specimen  shows  a  medium  degree  of  occip¬ 
ital  deformation  and  3  display  very  slight  occipital  flattening.  But 
in  some  cases  this  inconsiderable  flattening  is  so  combined  with 
post-mortem  warping  as  to  necessitate  throwing  out  the  measure¬ 
ments. 

In  respect  to  artificial  deformation  these  series  are  markedly  in 
contrast  with  the  group  of  crania  from  the  neighboring  Madison- 
ville  site  previously  studied  by  the  writer.  Of  53  male  crania  from 
the  Madison ville  site,  73.5  per  cent  showed  occipital  deformation, 
although  the  flattening  was  medium  or  pronounced  in  only  9.4 
per  cent  of  the  male  series.  In  the  case  of  females  from  Madison- 
ville,  29  in  number,  82.7  per  cent  displayed  occipital  deformation 
which  was  medium  or  pronounced  in  13.8  per  cent.1 

1  Hooton,  E.  A.  and  Willoughby,  C.  C.,  Indian  Village  Site  and  Cemetery  near  Madison- 
ville,  Ohio,  Papers  of  the  Peabody  Museum  of  American  Ethnology  and  Archaeology,  Harvard 
University,  Vol.  VIII,  No.  1,  p.  85. 


102 


TURNER  GROUP  OF  EARTHWORKS 


Cranial  Vault — Measurements  and  Indices. 

Cranial  Index 


Dolicho. 

Meso. 

Brachy. 

Total 

Min. 

Mean 

Max. 

Primary  series: 

Males:  number.  . 

.  .  .  7 

3 

2 

12 

71 

75.58 

83 

Females:  “ 

.  .  .  1 

4 

2 

7 

70 

77.85 

83 

Secondary  series: 

Males:  number.  . 

...  5 

5 

0 

10 

68 

74.3 

79 

Females:  “ 

.  .  .  1 

0 

0 

1 

73.26 

In  the  tabulation  of  cranial  indices  above,  one  male  skull  of  the 
secondary  series  has  been  excluded  because  of  a  medium  occipital 
deformation  (index  83.5),  and  several  others  because  of  post¬ 
mortem  warping.  It  includes  several  indices  which  may  be  only 
approximately  correct  on  account  of  defective  conditions  of  the 
specimens.  Taken  at  its  face  value  the  table  would  seem  to  in¬ 
dicate  that  the  primary  series  contains  a  brachy cephalic  element 
which  is  absent  from  the  secondary  series. 

These  skulls,  with  respect  to  the  cranial  index,  contrast  sharply 
with  the  neighboring  Madisonville  group  which  included  only 
2  dolichocephalic  crania  of  a  total  of  81  measured  by  the  writer, 
whereas  62  crania  or  76.54  per  cent  were  brachy  cephalic.  The 
Turner  group  of  crania  resembles  rather  the  Eastern  Indians  in 
its  predominant  dolichocephaly.  Hrdlicka  found  brachycephaly 
present  among  the  Eastern  tribes  to  the  extent  of  10.9  per  cent 
in  138  male  crania  and  10.3  per  cent  in  145  female  crania.1 

The  brachycephalic  element  is  slightly  more  pronounced  in  our 
primary  series  from  the  Turner  Group,  if  indeed  such  a  short 
series  is  at  all  representative.  In  the  secondary  series  there  is 
but  one  brachycephalic  cranium,  which  is  the  only  one  of  either 
series  presenting  a  medium  occipital  deformation.  This  cranium 
is  almost  certainly  a  naturally  mesocephalic  specimen. 


Diameters  of  the  Cranial  Vault 

Length  Breadth  Height 

Glabello-oreipital  Maximum  Basion-bregma 

No.  Min.  Mean  Max.  No.  Min.  Mean  Max.  No.  Min.  Mean.  Max. 

mm.  mm.  mm.  mm.  mm.  mm.  mm.  mm.  .  mm. 

Primary  series: 

Males  13  175  183.15  191  12  129  138.50  153  3  136  142.66  151 

Females  7  169  175.43  186  7  131  136.57  144  3  134  137.33  142 

Secondary  series : 

Males  10  173  183.80  199  10  124  135.30  145  0  0  0  0 

1  Hrdlicka.  Alfe,  Physical  Anthropology  of  the  Lenape  or  Delawares  and  of  the  Eastern 
Indians  in  General,  Bureau  of  American  Ethnology,  Bulletin  62,  p.  113. 


HAMILTON  COUNTY,  OHIO 


103 


The  mean  length  of  crania  of  males  in  the  two  series  from 
the  Turner  Group  is  approximately  the  same  (183.15  mm.  in 
the  primary  series  and  183.8  mm.  in  the  secondary  series),  but  the 
primary  series  with  a  mean  breadth  of  138.5  mm.  exceeds  the 
secondary  series  (mean  breadth  135.3  mm.). 

The  Madisonville  series  of  52  male  crania  yielded  an  average 
glabello-occipital  length  of  177.4  mm.,  and  that  of  29  female 
crania,  169  mm.  The  mean  breadths  of  this  series  were  146.1  mm. 
and  147.1  mm.,  respectively.  The  basion-bregma  height  in  the 
Madisonville  series  averages  136.9  for  males  and  131.3  for  females. 
It  is  quite  apparent  that  both  series  from  the  Turner  Group  differ 
from  the  Madisonville  crania  in  all  three  skull  diameters.  The 
crania  from  the  Turner  Group  are  longer,  narrower,  and  higher. 
They  resemble  rather  the  crania  of  the  Eastern  Indians.  Our 
primary  series  is  similar  in  cranial  dimensions  and  cranial  index 
to  those  Eastern  groups  which  contain  brachycephalic  elements 
such  as  the  Virginia  series  measured  by  Hrdlicka.1  The  secondary 
series  shows  affinities  with  the  more  dolichocephalic  Eastern 
tribes,  but  the  writer  wishes  to  avoid  overemphasizing  these 
resemblances  and  differences  in  view  of  the  small  number  of 
crania  under  consideration. 

Height  Indices.  All  but  9  of  the  Turner  Group  crania  are  so 
defective  that  the  height-length  index  cannot  be  ascertained. 
Three  of  four  male  crania  in  the  primary  series  are  hypsicephalic 
and  one  orthocephalic.  Three  females  of  the  primary  series  are 
all  hypsicephals,  as  is  the  one  male  skull  of  the  secondary  series 
in  regard  to  which  this  index  is  valid.  The  mean  of  the  four 
male  crania  is  77.72  and  of  the  three  female  crania  79.66.  Miss 
Studley  calculated  the  mean  height-length  index  of  9  crania  of 
the  intrusive  or  secondary  series  at  78.9,  but  her  measurements 
of  the  basi-bregmatic  height  must  have  been  mere  guesses,  unless 
the  crania  in  question  have  been  broken  since  she  studied  them, 
which  is  not  probable.  If  any  significance  is  to  be  attributed  to 
these  few  height-length  indices,  it  is  that  they  are  rather  above 
the  average  for  Eastern  Indians,  except  the  Virginia  Indians, 
the  crania  of  which  average  in  two  small  series  of  males  76.2  and 
79  respectively.2  Height  breadth  indices  are  too  few  to  merit 
consideration. 

1  Op.  cit.,  pp.  118-119. 

2  Hrdlicka,  op.  cit.,  loc.  cit. 


104 


TURNER  GROUP  OF  EARTHWORKS 


Cranial  Arcs  and  Circumferences. 


Mean  Values  and  Range 


Mean 

Range 

Number 

Horizontal  Circumference 

Male 

mm. 

Female 

mm. 

Male 

mm. 

Female 

mm. 

Male 

Female 

Primary  series . 

516 

498 

495-536 

478-512 

12 

8 

Secondary  series  .... 

515 

496-537 

10 

Nasion-opisthion  arc: 

Primary  series . 

381 

358 

371-400 

345-370 

6 

4 

Secondary  series  .... 

364 

323-405 

7 

Transverse  arc: 

Primary  series . 

318 

303 

305-327 

292-320 

8 

7 

Secondary  series  .... 

309 

282-328 

9 

From  an  inspection  of  the  table  above  it  may  be  observed  that 
the  mean  values  of  the  horizontal  circumferences  (above  brow- 
ridges)  in  our  primary  and  secondary  series  of  males  from  the 
Turner  Group  are  approximately  the  same,  516  mm.  and  515  mm. 
respectively.  These  figures  are  slightly  in  excess  of  the  mean  for 
Madisonville  males,  which  is  513  mm. 

The,  figures  for  the  nasion-opisthion  arc  are  based  upon  very  few 
observations  and  the  mean  of  the  primary  series  of  males  (381 
mm.)  is  extremely  high  as  compared  with  that  of  the  secondary 
series  (364  mm.).  The  mean  of  the  females  of  the  priinarj^  series 
is  also  high  (358  mm.).  The  means  of  corresponding  measure¬ 
ments  on  Madisonville  males  and  females  are  361  mm.  and  345 
mm.,  respectively.  The  high  mean  for  this  measurement  in  the  case 
of  the  males  of  our  primary  series  is  probably  due  to  the  circum¬ 
stance  that  the  only  skvdls  of  the  short  series  upon  which  this 
measurement  could  be  taken  happened  to  be  the  largest  skulls  of 
the  series.  The  nasion-opisthion  arc  in  7  Munsee  (Delaware)  males 
averaged  371  mm.  and  in  9  Munsee  females  346  mm.,  according 
to  the  work  of  Dr.  Hrdlicka.1 

The  transverse  arc  of  the  males  of  the  primary  series  averages 
318  mm.,  and  of  the  males  of  the  secondary  series  309  mm.  This 
difference  may  possibly  be  significant.  The  figures  for  Madison¬ 
ville  males  and  females  are  316  mm.  and  306  mm.,  respectively. 

Cranial  Capacity.  Only  2  skulls  of  the  collection  are  sufficiently 
well  preserved  to  permit  the  cranial  capacities  to  be  measured. 

1  Op.  cit.,  p.  22. 


Peabody  Museum  Papers 


Vol.  VIII,  No.  3.  Plate  25 


Dolichocephalic  cranium  of  male,  Grave  10,  Burial  Place  a;  Primary  series,  A731 . 


HAMILTON  COUNTY,  OHIO 


105 


These  are  2  male  crania  of  the  primary  series,  and  the  capacities 
(approximate  only)  are  1420  cc.  and  1580  cc.  respectively.  Miss 
Studley  in  her  study  of  the  crania  of  the  secondary  series  records 
the  capacities  of  10  skulls.  The  average  was  1485  cc.,  and  the  range 
1225-1600  cc.  The  present  writer  is  skeptical  in  regard  to  the 
accuracy  of  these  figures,  because  many  of  the  crania  for  which 
capacities  are  given  are  mere  fragments. 

Thickness  of  Left  Parietal  Above  Temporo-parietal  Suture. 


Mean  Thickness  and  Range 


Mean 

mm. 

Range 

mm. 

Number 

Primary  series :  males .  . 

.  5 

3. 3-7. 5 

12 

“  “  females 

.  4.8 

3. 6-6. 3 

8 

Secondary  series:  males 

.  4.5 

3. 0-5. 3 

10 

This  measurement  is 

the  average  thickness  of  the  left  parietal 

1  cm.  above  the  squamous  suture.  The  average  thickness  of  the 
crania  of  the  primary  series,  5  mm.  in  males  and  4.8  mm.  in  fe¬ 
males,  is  moderate  for  Indians.  The  mean  for  males  of  the  sec¬ 
ondary  series,  4.5  mm.,  is  small. 

Minimum  Frontal  Diameter. 

Mean  Breadth  and  Range 

Mean  Range  Number 


Turner  Group 

Males 

mm. 

Females 

mm. 

Males 

mm. 

Females 

mm. 

Males  Females 

Primary  series  .  . . 

92.15 

90.50 

84-100 

85-95 

13 

10 

Secondary  series  . 

93.50 

89-100 

10 

Madisonville  series . . . 

94.97 

92.71 

89-103 

85-103 

48 

28 

A  noticeable  feature  of  the  Turner  Group  series  of  crania  is  the 
narrow,  low,  but  not  especially  retreating  frontal  region.  The 
frontal  region  is  often  narrow  in  dolichocephali,  but  such  a  low 
average  minimum  frontal  diameter  as  is  to  be  observed  from  the 
table  given  above  in  the  case  of  the  males  of  our  primary  series  is 
unusual  in  Indians.  For  parallel  cases  we  may  look  once  more  to 
the  Eastern  Indians,  among  whom  Dr.  Hrdlicka  records  a  mean 
minimum  frontal  diameter  for  4  Connecticut  male  crania  of  91 
mm.,  and  one  of  92  mm.  for  2  male  crania  from  Staten  Island. 

Facial,  Nasal,  and  Orbital  Measurements  and  Indices.  The 
facial  portions  of  almost  all  of  the  crania  from  the  Turner  Group 
are  either  entirely  missing  or  fragmentary,  so  that  very  few  of 
them  can  be  measured. 


106 


TURNER  GROUP  OF  EARTHWORKS 


Only  two  of  the  male  crania  of  our  primary  series  are  available 
for  the  calculating  of  the  total  facial  index.  These  are  both 
leptoprosopic,  with  indices  of  91.24  and  approximately  90.8.  Of 
the  four  male  crania  from  the  secondary  series  upon  which  this 
index  was  obtained,  one  is  euryprosopic  with  an  index  of  approxi¬ 
mately  84.7,  one  mesoprosopic  with  an  index  of  89.26,  and  two 
leptoprosopic  with  indices  of  98.56  and  approximately  95.31. 
Three  female  crania  of  the  primary  series  are  all  mesoprosopic 
with  indices  of  87.50,  87.69,  and  88.37.  There  were  no  lepto¬ 
prosopic  crania  in  the  Madison vi lie  series,  and  over  72  per  cent 
were  euryprosopic. 

In  regard  to  the  upper  facial  index,  two  male  crania  of  the  pri¬ 
mary  series  are  leptene  with  indices  of  55.73  and  58.39.  Three 
of  the  male  crania  from  the  secondary  series  are  mesene,  and  two 
leptene.  One  female  cranium  of  the  primary  series  is  mesene  and 
two  are  leptene.  Only  about  7.5  per  cent  of  the  Madisonville 
crania  are  leptene,  and  in  respect  to  this  index  the  Turner  Group 
series  shows  a  closer  similarity  to  the  crania  of  the  Tennessee  stone 
graves,  among  which  Fuller  found  34  per  cent  leptene.  Several 
groups  of  Eastern  Indians  measured  by  Hrdlicka  show  average 
leptene  indices.  The  facial  skeletons  of  both  of  our  series  are  rela¬ 
tively  long  and  narrow. 

Of  5  nasal  indices  calculated  on  male  crania  of  the  primary 
series,  1  is  platyrrhine,  2  are  mesorrhine,  and  2  leptorrhine;  6  nasal 
indices  on  males  of  the  secondary  series  are  all  leptorrhine;  of  4 
nasal  indices  of  females  of  the  primary  series  2  are  mesorrhine 
and  2  leptorrhine. 

The  mean  orbital  indices  of  3  male  crania  from  the  primary 
series  are  all  hypsiconch  (89  and  over) ;  in  the  intrusive  series 
of  males  the  distribution  of  4  orbital  indices  is  as  follows:  1  cha- 
maeconch  (under  83),  2  mesoconch.and  1  hypsiconch.  Three  female 
crania  of  the  primary  series  are  mesoconch,  and  2  are  hypsiconch. 

External  Palatal  Index  (Maxillo-alveolar).  One  male  cranium 
of  the  primary  series  is  dolichuranic  (below  110),  1  is  mesuranic, 
and  2  are  brachyuranic  (above  115).  These  4  indices  yield  a  mean 
of  118.7.  Of  the  males  of  the  secondary  series  1  is  mesuranic  and 
4  are  brachyuranic,  yielding  together  a  mean  index  of  117.6.  The 
females  of  the  primary  series  show  3  mesuranic  indices  and  3 
brachyuranic  indices,  with  a  mean  of  116.7. 


HAMILTON  COUNTY,  OHIO 


107 


Alveolar  Index  (Gnathic  Index).  This  index  is  obtainable  on 
6  crania  of  the  combined  series.  All  are  orthognathous,  except 
one  male  of  the  primary  series  which  is  mesognathous. 

Lower  Jaw. 

Mean  Dimensions 


Males 

Primary  series 
Number  Mean 

Males 

Secondary  series 
Number  Mean 

Females 
Primary  series 
Number  Mean 

mm. 

mm. 

mm. 

Bigonial  diameter . 

.  4 

101 

8 

105.8 

4 

96.7 

Mean  angle . 

.  7 

120.1 

8 

123.3 

5 

124.4 

Height  of  symphysis . 

.  7 

37.6 

8 

37 

8 

34.9 

Width  bicondylar . 

1 

131 

6 

125.8 

5 

117.4 

Minimum  breadth  of  ascend 

ing  ramus . . . 

,  11 

36.4 

10 

34.7 

7 

34.5 

Height  of  ascending  ramus 

9 

63 

10 

62.4 

8 

57.2 

Condylo-symphyseal  length 

4 

108.5 

9 

108.9 

5 

99.8 

The  mandibles  of  these  series  are  longer  than 

those 

of  the  Madi- 

sonville  series,  and  judging  from  the  males  of  the  secondary  series, 
are  narrower.  The  mean  condylo-symphyseal  length  for  Madi- 
sonville  males  (24)  is  104.6,  but  for  7  females  104.5.  The  bicondy- 
lar  width  of  22  Madisonville  male  crania  averages  129  mm.  and 
of  7  females,  122.7  mm. 

Frontal  Region. 

Observations 

Primary  series  Secondary  series 


No.  of 
males 

No.  of 
females 

No.  of 
males 

Total 

Height  low: 

Breadth  submedium,  Slope  submedium 

0 

2 

2 

4 

Breadth  submedium,  Slope  medium  . . . 

3 

2 

3 

8 

Breadth  submedium,  Slope  pronounced 

1 

1 

1 

3 

Breadth  medium,  Slope  submedium  .  . . 

1 

0 

0 

1 

Breadth  medium,  Slope  medium . 

2 

0 

0 

2 

Breadth  medium,  Slope  pronounced  .... 

1 

0 

2 

3 

Breadth  pronounced,  Slope  medium  .  .  . 

1 

0 

0 

1 

Total:  number . 

9 

5 

8 

22 

per  cent . 

69.2 

50 

72.7 

64.7 

Height  medium: 

Breadth  submedium,  Slope  submedium 

0 

1 

0 

1 

Breadth  submedium,  Slope  medium  . .  . 

2 

2 

1 

5 

Breadth  medium,  Slope  submedium  . . . 

2 

1 

0 

3 

Breadth  medium,  Slope  medium . 

0 

1 

2 

3 

Total:  number . 

4 

5 

3 

12 

per  cent . 

30.7 

50 

27.2 

35.2 

108 


TURNER  GROUP  OF  EARTHWORKS 


Observations  on  the  frontal  region  refer  to  the  combinations 
of  height,  breadth,  and  slope.  Each  of  these  may  be  adjudged 
submedium,  medium,  or  pronounced.  There  are  thus  27  possible 
combinations  of  the  three  observed  characters,  of  which  11  occur 
in  the  two  series  from  the  Turner  Group.  There  are  no  crania 
which  are  classified  as  high;  about  70  per  cent  of  both  male 
series  and  50  per  cent  of  the  female  series  are  low.  The  following 
tabulation  shows  the  distribution  of  breadth  and  slope  considered 
independently. 

Breadth  and  Slope  of  Frontal  Region 


Breadth 

Slope 

Submedium 

Medium 

Wide 

Submedium 

Medium 

Pronounced 

Primary  series: 

Males:  number  .  . 

0 

6 

1 

3 

S 

2 

Females:  number 

8 

2 

0 

4 

5 

1 

Secondary  series: 

Males:  number  .  . 

7 

4 

0 

2 

6 

3 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

Total:  number. 

.  21 

12 

1 

9 

19 

6 

per  cent 

t 

.  61.7 

35.2 

2.9 

26.4 

55.8 

17.6 

From  the  tables  above  it  may  be  seen  that  the  prevailing  type 
of  frontal  region  in  the  males  and  females  of  both  series  is  low, 
narrow,  and  of  medium  slope.  The  females  show  a  larger  number 
of  cases  in  which  the  slope  is  submedium  or  steep.  The  low  and 
narrow,  but  only  moderately  sloping  frontal  region,  is  a  marked 
characteristic  of  most  of  the  crania  from  this  site.  It  is  strikingly 
represented  in  the  conformation  of  the  forehead  of  certain  clay 
figurines  from  the  site,  described  by  Mr.  Willoughby  (p.  71). 

Sagittal  Region. 

Observations 

Primary  series  Secondary  series 


Breadth  submedium: 

Males 

Females 

Males 

Total 

Elevation  absent . 

.  1 

0 

1 

2 

Elevation  submedium . 

.  1 

1 

1 

3 

Elevation  medium . 

.  1 

1 

1 

3 

Elevation  pronounced . 

.  0 

0 

0 

0 

— 

— 

— 

— 

Total:  number . 

.  3 

2 

3 

8 

per  cent . 

22.2 

27.2 

24.2 

Peabody  Museum  Papers 


Vol.  VIII,  No.  3,  Plate  26 


Mesocephalie'cranium,  Grave  18,  Burial  Place  a;  Primary  series,  A748. 


HAMILTON  COUNTY.  OHIO 


109 


Primary 

Males 

series 

Females 

Secondary-  series 
Males 

Total 

Breadth  medium: 

Elevation  absent . 

.  0 

2 

4 

6 

Elevation  submedium . . 

.  4 

3 

3 

10 

Elevation  medium . 

2 

0 

1 

3 

Elevation  pronounced . 

.  i 

1 

0 

2 

— 

- - 

— 

— 

Total:  number . 

6 

S 

21 

per  cent . 

.  53.8 

66.6 

72.7 

63.6 

Breadth  wide: 

Elevation  absent . 

.  1 

0 

0 

1 

Elevation  submedium . 

.  0 

0 

0 

0 

Elevation  medium . 

2 

1 

0 

3 

Elevation  pronounced . 

.  0 

0 

0 

0 

— 

- - 

— 

- - 

Total:  number . 

.  3 

1 

0 

4 

per  cent . 

.  23.1 

11.1 

0 

12.1 

A  perusal  of  the  table  above  shows  that  the  crania  of  our  primary 
series  are  prevailingly  of  medium  breadth  with  a  submedium 
sagittal  elevation,  and  that  the  same  holds  true  of  the  males  of 
our  secondary  series  except  that  the  sagittal  elevation  is  more 
frequently  absent.  Separate  tabulations  of  the  development  of 
the  sagittal  elevation  and  of  the  postcoronoid  depression  follow. 

Sagittal  Elevation  Postcoronoid  Depression 

<  f  c  §  a.  a  <  x  £  2  £  £ 


Primary  series: 

Males .  2  5  5  1  3  S  2  0 

Females .  2  4  21  2  700 

Secondary  series: 

Males .  5  4  2  0  4  6  0  1 


Total:  number  9  13  9  2  9  21  2  1 

per  cent  27.2  39.3  27.2  6.1  27.2  63.6  6.1  3 

The  sagittal  elevation  is  more  strongly  developed  in  the  males 
of  the  primary  series  than  in  the  females,  and  more  strongly  de¬ 
veloped  in  both  sexes  of  the  primary  series  than  in  the  males  of 
the  secondary  series.  The  same  is  true  of  the  postcoronoid  de¬ 
pression.  The  sagittal  elevation  is  not  so  well  developed  in  these 


110 


TURNER  GROUP  OF  EARTHWORKS 


series  as  in  the  Madisonville  crania,  but  the  postcoronoid  de¬ 
pression  is  much  more  common. 


Temporal  Region. 


Observations 

Flat  or  Compressed 

Medium 

Protuberant 

Total 

Primary  series: 

Males . . 

.  9 

2 

2 

13 

Females . 

.  2 

4 

2 

8 

Secondary  series: 

Males . 

.  9 

1 

1 

11 

Total:  number . 

.  20 

7 

5 

32 

per  cent . 

.  62.5 

21.8 

15.6 

The  temporal  region 

in  the  males  of  both  series  is  predominantly 

flat  or  compressed  as  is 

;  to  be  expected 

in  lonj 

g  heads.  The  females 

show  a  greater  convexity  of  this  region. 

In  the  Madisonville 

series  almost  equal  proportions  of  the  three  categories  appear  in 

both  sexes. 

Occipital  Region. 

Observations 

Primary 

series  1 

Secondary  series 

Total 

Males 

Females 

Males 

Flat  or  steep : 

Torus  absent . 

2 

2 

i 

5 

Torus  submedium . 

.  i 

0 

i 

2 

Torus  medium . 

.  i 

0 

i 

2 

Total:  number . 

.  4 

2 

3 

9 

per  cent . 

28.5 

37.5 

33.3 

Medium  convex: 

Torus  absent . 

.  6 

5 

3 

14 

Torus  submedium . 

.  0 

0 

1 

1 

Torus  medium . 

.  1 

0 

0 

1 

Torus  pronounced . 

.  0 

0 

1 

1 

Total:  number . 

5 

5 

17 

per  cent . 

.  58.3 

71.4 

63.5 

62.9 

Protuberant : 

Torus  medium . 

.  1 

0 

0 

1 

Total:  per  cent . 

.  8.3 

0 

0 

3.7 

HAMILTON  COUNTY,  OHIO 


111 


An  inspection  of  the  table  above  shows  that  the  occipital  region 
is  predominantly  medium  convex,  and  with  no  development  of  the 
occipital  torus.  This  table  excludes  1  female  cranium,  flat  and 
deformed  with  a  slight  torus,  and  3  flat  deformed  male  crania  of 
the  secondary  series,  2  of  which  have  a  slight  torus.  The  complete 
tabulation  of  the  occurrence  of  the  occipital  torus  is  as  follows: 

Occipital  Torus 

Absent  Submedium  Medium  Pronounced  Total 


Primary  series: 

Males .  8  1  3  0  12 

Females .  7  10  0  8 

Secondary  series: 

Males . .  5  4  1  1  11 

Total:  number .  20  6  4  1  31 

percent .  64.5  19.3  12.9  3.2 


The  occipital  torus  occurs  more  frequently  in  the  males  of  the 
secondary  series  than  in  the  males  of  the  primary  series,  and  is 
almost  absent  from  the  female  crania. 

Sutures. 

Occlusion  of  Coronal,  Sagittal,  and  Lambdoid  Sutures 

All  Almost  Mis- 

All  open  beginning  obliterated  cellaneous  Total 


Primary  series: 

Males . .  4  1  2  6  13 

Females .  6  111  9 

Secondary  series: 

Males .  3  0  2  6  11 

Total .  13  2  5  13  33 


From  the  table  above  it  may  be  seen  that  a  larger  proportion 
of  female  crania  show  no  exterior  signs  of  sutural  occlusion  than 
is  the  case  with  either  of  the  male  series. 

Five  of  the  6  crania  in  the  primary  series  of  males  classified  as 
miscellaneous,  show  obliteration  more  advanced  in  the  coronal 
suture  than  in  the  sagittal  and  lambdoid  sutures.  The  order  of 
obliteration  is  probably  C-S-L  in  this  series  of  males.  Three  of 


112 


TURNER  GROUP  OF  EARTHWORKS 


the  miscellaneous  crania  of  the  secondary  series  show  obliteration 
farther  advanced  in  the  sagittal  than  in  the  coronal  or  lambdoid; 
in  two  others  there  is  equal  obliteration  in  the  coronal  and  sagittal 
and  less  in  the  lambdoid;  and  in  the  sixth,  obliteration  has  pro¬ 
ceeded  farthest  in  the  lambdoid. 


Serration 

Simple 

Medium 

Complex 

Primary  series: 

Males . 

2 

11 

0 

Females . 

.  4 

5 

0 

Secondary  series: 

Males . 

.  7 

3 

1 

Total 

13 

9 

11 


Serration  of  sutures  in  the  primary  series  of  males  is  prevail¬ 
ingly  medium,  which  is  unusual  for  Indians.  In  the  secondary 
series  there  is  the  usual  predominance  of  simple  sutures. 

Wormian  Bones 

Temporo-  Temporo- 

None  Lambdoid  parietal  occipital  Others  Total 


Primary,  series : 

Males .  4  6  1  0  0  11 

Females .  4  3  0  2  0  9 

Secondary  series: 

Males .  1  7  0  0  3  11 


The  secondary  series  differs  from  the  primary  series  in  the  larger 
number  of  crania  with  Wormian  bones  in  the  lambdoid  suture. 
There  are  also  two  crania  in  this  series  with  “  Inca  ”  bones,  and 
one  with  an  epipteric  suture. 


Pterions 

II  type  H  type 

narrow  medium 

H  type 
broad 

K  type 

Total 

Primary  series: 

Males . 

2 

3 

1 

1 

7 

Females . 

.  i 

7 

1 

0 

9 

Secondary  series: 

Males . 

.  i 

8 

0 

0 

9 

The  table  above  shows  that  the  form  of  the  pterion  is  usually 
a  medium  H  in  all  of  the  groups  considered. 


HAMILTON  COUNTY,  OHIO 


113 


Parietal  Foramina. 


Primary  series : 

Males . 

Females .... 


Number  and  Size 

None  One  Two  One  One  medium  Three  One 

small  small  medium  One  small  small  large  Total 


6 

3 

1 

1 

0 

0 

1 

12 

4 

4 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

8 

Secondary  series : 

Males .  4 


3 


1 


0 


10 


Total:  number  14 
per  cent  46.6 


10  2  1 

33.3  6.6  3.3 


1 

3.3 


1  1 

3.3  3.3 


30 


Parietal  foramina  are  absent  in  50  per  cent  of  the  males  and 
females  of  the  primary  series,  and  in  40  per  cent  of  the  males  of 
the  secondary  series.  In  the  Madisonville  series  parietal  foramina 
are  absent  in  45  per  cent  of  males  and  58  per  cent  of  females. 

The  number  of  retromastoid  foramina  could  be  recorded  in  a 
very  few  crania  only.  Usually  there  are  a  larger  and  a  smaller 
on  each  side,  but  they  are  extremely  variable  in  size,  number,  and 
position. 


Mastoids. 


Small 


Primary  series: 

Males .  6 

Females .  9 

Secondary  series: 

Males .  2 


Size 


Medium 

Large 

Total 

6 

1 

13 

0 

0 

9 

7 

2 

11 

These  are  small  in  all  females,  and  in  46.1  per  cent  of  the  males  of 
the  primary  series,  but  in  only  18.1  per  cent  of  the  males  of  the 
secondary  series.  The  percentage  distribution  of  the  males  of 
the  primary  series  is  approximately  the  same  as  that  of  the  males 
of  the  Madisonville  series,  but  the  females  of  the  Madisonville 
series  have  better  developed  mastoids  than  the  females  of  our 
series  from  the  Turner  Group. 


114 


TURNER  GROUP  OF  EARTHWORKS 


Supraorbital  Ridges. 


Supraorbital  Ridges  — 

Type 

Primary 

series 

Secondary  series 

Males 

Females 

Males 

Median  type: 

Submedium.  .  .  . 

2 

4 

3 

Medium . 

.  4 

1 

1 

Large . 

.  0 

0 

1 

Total . 

.  6 

5 

5 

Divided  type: 

Submedium.  .  .  . 

.  2 

2 

2 

Medium . 

.  3 

0 

3 

Large . 

.  1 

0 

1 

— 

— 

— 

Total . 

.  6 

2 

6 

Torus  type: 

Large . 

.  1 

0 

0 

Absent . 

.  0 

3 

0 

Total 

9 

6 

1 

16 

6 

6 

2 

14 

1 

3 


Supraorbital  Ridges  —  Size 

None  Traces  Submediuin  Medium  Large  Total 


Primary  series: 

Males:  number .  0  0 

per  cent .  0  0 

Females:  number  ...  3  6 

per  cent ...  30  60 

Secondary  series: 

Males:  number .  0  0 

per  cent .  0  0 


4 

7 

2 

13 

30.7 

53.8 

15.3 

0 

1 

0 

10 

0 

10 

0 

5 

4 

2 

11 

45.4 

36.3 

18.1 

Supraorbital  ridges  in  the  males  of  the  two  series  are  about 
evenly  divided  between  the  median  type,  in  which  they  are  con¬ 
fined  to  median  portions  of  the  orbits,  and  the  divided  type  in 
which  the  lateral  portions  of  the  superior  orbital  margins  are 
thickened  to  form  ridges  which  are  divided  from  the  median 
ridges  by  a  groove  leading  upward  from  the  supraorbital  notch. 
The  torus  type  occurs  in  one  cranium  only.  In  the  females,  the 
supraorbital  ridges  are  either  absent  or  show  very  slight  develop¬ 
ment,  except  in  one  case. 

Facial  Region.  The  facial  parts  are  so  defective  in  the  majority 
of  the  crania  of  these  series  that  few  observations  were  recorded. 
The  height,  breadth,  and  slope  of  the  nasal  bridge,  for  example,  was 


HAMILTON  COUNTY,  OHIO 


115 


ascertained  in  only  one  cranium  of  our  primary  male  series.  This 
specimen  has  a  high,  narrow,  and  straight  bridge.  In  two  other 
specimens  of  this  series  the  nasal  bridges  are  medium  in  height 
and  in  breadth,  and  low  and  narrow  respectively,  but  the  slope  of 
the  nasal  bones  could  not  be  ascertained.  In  the  female  series,  four 
observations  are  as  follows :  1  low,  medium  broad,  concave;  1  low, 
medium  broad,  straight;  1  medium  high,  narrow,  straight;  1 
medium  high,  narrow,  concavo-convex.  In  the  males  of  the 
secondary  series  there  occurred  the  following:  1  low,  narrow, 
concavo-convex;  1  low,  medium  broad,  concavo-convex;  1 
medium  high,  medium  broad,  concavo-convex.  Of  four  others 
in  this  series  in  which  the  slope  could  not  be  ascertained  the  com¬ 
binations  of  height  and  breadth  are  as  follows:  1  low,  narrow; 
2  low,  medium  broad;  1  medium  high,  narrow.  It  is  impossible 
to  draw  many  conclusions  from  such  data.  High,  narrow,  and 
straight  noses  occur  in  the  primary  series,  while  low  or  medium 
noses  of  medium  breadth  and  concavo-convex  in  slope  seem  to 
prevail  among  the  males  of  the  secondary  series. 

Nasion  depressions,  properly  speaking,  are  practically  non¬ 
existent  in  this  series.  There  is  usually  a  depression  below  nasion, 
but  any  depression  of  the  fronto-nasal  suture  itself  is  due  entirely 
to  the  prominence  of  glabella. 


Lower  Borders  of  Nasal  Aperture  and  Nasal  Spine 


Borders  indistinct: 
Spine  small  .  .  .  . 
Spine  medium .  . 
Spine  large . 


Primary  series 

Secondary  series 

Males 

Females 

Males 

4 

3 

6 

1 

1 

0 

0 

0 

0 

Total 

13 

2 

0 


Total .  5 

Borders  medium: 

Spine  small .  0 

Spine  medium .  0 

Spine  large .  1 


4  6 


1  0 
2  2 
0  1 


15 

1 

4 

2 


Total 


1  3  3 


7 


The  table  above  shows  that  the  prevailing  form  of  lower  bor¬ 
ders  of  nasal  aperture  is  indistinct,  with  a  small  development  of 
the  nasal  spine  in  all  groups  considered.  Similar  results  were 


116  TURNER  GROUP  OF  EARTHWORKS 

found  in  the  crania  from  the  Madisonville  site.  Subnasal  grooves 
are  absent  in  all  of  6  of  the  male  crania  of  the  primary  series, 
slightly  developed  in  one  of  7  crania  of  the  female  series,  and 
moderately  developed  in  2  of  9  male  crania  of  the  secondary 
series.  The  males  of  the  secondary  series  appear  to  have  slightly 
more  primitive  features  of  the  nasal  aperture  than  those  of  the 
primary  series. 


Shape  of  Orbits 

and  Inclination  of 

Lateral  Axis 

Primary 

Males 

series 

Females 

Secondary  series 
Males 

Total 

Nearly  oblong: 

Inclination  none . 

...  0 

2 

i 

3 

Inclination  slight . 

...  1 

1 

i 

3 

Inclination  medium . 

2 

1 

6 

9 

Inclination  marked . 

...  0 

1 

0 

1 

— 

— 

— 

— 

Total . 

. . .  3 

5 

8 

16 

Nearly  square: 

Inclination  none . 

...  1 

0 

0 

1 

Inclination  submedium. . . . 

...  1 

1 

0 

2 

Inclination  medium . 

.  .  .  1 

1 

1 

3 

— 

— 

— 

— 

Total . 

...  3 

2 

1 

6 

Features  of  interest  in  the  observation  of  orbits  are  the  shape 
and  inclination  of  the  lateral  axis.  The  usual  shapes  are  approxi¬ 
mately  oblong  with  rounded  corners,  or  approximately  square 
with  rounded  corners.  Strictly  speaking,  when  the  lateral  axis  of 
an  orbit  is  much  inclined,  the  form  of  the  orbit  is  rhomboidal,  rather 
than  square  or  oblong.  Marked  inclination  of  the  lateral  axis  of 
the  orbit  is  more  common  in  narrow,  long-faced  crania  than  in 
short,  broad-faced  crania,  in  which  the  orbits  are  likely  to  be 
oblong  with  little  inclination.  Square  forms  of  the  orbit  are  also 
more  common  in  long,  narrow  faces.  In  the  males  of  the  primary 
series  from  the  Turner  Group,  3  crania  are  of  oblong  shape  and 
3  square.  Five  of  7  female  crania,  and  8  of  9  crania  in  the  males 
of  the  secondary  series  are  oblong.  Inclination  of  the  lateral  axis 
is  usually  slight  or  medium  in  these  series. 


HAMILTON  COUNTY,  OHIO 

117 

Infraorbital  Suture 

Complete 
Absent  one  side 

Complete 
both  sides 

Total 

Primary  series: 

Males . 

.  5 

1 

i 

7 

Females . 

.  5 

0 

2 

7 

Secondary  series : 

Males . 

.  6 

0 

1 

7 

- , 

- - 

— 

— 

Total:  number. 

.  16 

1 

4 

21 

per  cent . 

.  76.2 

4.7 

19 

Suborbital  Fossae 

Shallow  Medium 

Deep 

Total 

Primary  series: 

Males . 

.  0 

5 

0 

5 

Females . 

. .  5 

1 

1 

7 

Secondary  series: 

Males . 

.  4 

5 

0 

9 

— 

— 

— 

— 

Total  . 

.  9 

11 

1 

21 

The  depth  of  the  suborbital  fossae 

in  these 

series  is  prevailingly 

medium  or  slight.  It  may  be  observed  from  the  table  above  that 
the  males  of  the  primary  series  are  sharply  contrasted  with  the 
females  in  respect  to  the  development  of  this  feature.  Shallow 
suborbital  fossae  are  often  associated  with  broad,  short  faces. 


Small 

Malars 

Medium 

Large 

Very  large 

Total 

Primary  series: 

Males . 

. . . .  0 

4 

3 

0 

7 

Females . 

.  .  .  .  2 

3 

1 

0 

6 

Secondary  series : 

Males . 

.  .  . .  0 

3 

5 

1 

9 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

Total . 

. . . .  2 

10 

9 

1 

22 

On  the  basis  of  the  table  above  the  males  of  the  secondary 
series  seem  to  have  somewhat  larger  malars  than  those  of  the 
primary  series.  As  usual  the  malars  of  the  females  are  decidedly 
smaller  than  those  of  the  males.  There  are  no  anomalies  of  malar 
bones  in  any  of  these  crania. 


118 


TURNER  GROUP  OF  EARTHWORKS 


Small 

Zygomae 

Medium 

Large 

Very  large 

Total 

Primary  series: 

Males . 

. .. .  i 

4 

2 

0 

7 

Females . 

.  .  .  .  2 

3 

1 

0 

6 

Secondary  series: 

Males . 

.  .  .  .  0 

3 

5 

1 

9 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

Total . 

.  . .  .  3 

10 

8 

1 

22 

The  males  of  the  secondary  series  have  larger  zygomae  than  those 
of  the  primary  series.  The  females  show  the  usual  sex  differences 
in  the  smaller  size  of  the  zygomae  as  compared  with  males.  The 
zygomae  of  the  males  of  the  primary  series  seem  rather  small  for 
Indians. 

Alveolar  Prognathism 

Absent  Slight  Medium  Pronounced  Total 


Primary  series: 

Males .  0  4  0  3  7 

Females .  114  17 

Secondary  series: 

Males .  0  6  0  2  8 

Total .  1  11  4  6  22 


The  distribution  of  alveolar  prognathism  is  very  irregular. 


Teeth. 

Dentition 

Complete  Incomplete 

None 

Slight 

Wear 

Medium 

Pronounced 

Total 

Primary  series: 
Males . 

.  .  10 

1 

0 

2 

3 

6 

11 

Females . 

. .  9 

0 

0 

2 

4 

3 

9 

Secondary  series 
Males . 

.  .  9 

1 

1 

i 

4 

4 

10 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

Total  . 

.  .  28 

2 

1 

5 

11 

13 

30 

In  both  cases  the  dentitions  listed  as  incomplete  in  the  tables 
above  show  imperfectly  erupted  third  molars.  On  the  whole, 
this  series  includes  a  high  percentage  of  crania  with  deeply  wTorn 
teeth  (43.3  per  cent).  This  is  a  result,  in  all  probability,  of  the 
small  number  of  young  adults  included  in  the  series.  The  follow¬ 
ing  table  shows  the  relation  of  estimated  age  to  dental  wear. 


HAMILTON  COUNTY,  OHIO 


119 


Wear  of  Teeth 


None  Slight 

Medium 

Pro¬ 

nounced 

Very  pro¬ 
nounced 

Total 

Estimated  age: 

Sub-adult  (19-20  years) .  .  1 

1 

Young  adult  (21-35  years) .  .  . 

2 

2 

Middle  aged  (36-50  years)  . . . 

3 

11 

6 

20 

Old  adult  (51-years) . 

7 

7 

Quality 

Poor  Medium 

of  Teeth 

Good  Total 

Caries 

Teeth  lost 
Abscesses  in  life 

Primary  series: 

Males .  3  3 

5 

11 

3 

2 

2 

Females .  1  2 

6 

9 

2 

3 

2 

Secondary  series: 

Males .  2  1 

6 

9 

1 

2 

4 

-  - 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

Total:  number .  .  6  6 

17 

29 

6 

7 

8 

percent..  20.6  20.6 

58.6 

20.6 

24.1 

27.5 

The  table  above  shows  that  the  quality  of  the  teeth  in  these 
series  is  generally  good.  Caries  and  alveolar  abscesses  are  not 
especially  prevalent. 

Number  of  Cusps 


Upper  molars  Lower  molars 


4-4-4 

4-4-3 

4-4-2 

5-5-5 

5-5-4 

5-4-4 

Primary  series: 

Males . 

.  . .  0 

3 

1 

1 

3 

0 

Females . 

. . .  0 

2 

0 

1 

0 

1 

Secondary  series: 

Males . 

.  . .  0 

1 

0 

4 

0 

1 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

Total:  number.  .  . 

. . .  0 

6 

1 

6 

3 

2 

The  number  of  crania  in  which  the  cusps  of  the  molar  teeth 
can  be  counted  is  very  few.  The  table  above  shows  a  tendency 
toward  reduction  of  cusps  in  the  third  molars.  The  following  ab¬ 
normalities  of  eruption  are  recorded.  Primary  series:  crowding  of 
incisors,  1  male,  1  female;  absence  of  third  molars,  1  male;  im¬ 
pacted  lower  left  third  molar,  1  male;  pronounced  reduction  of 
lower  left  first  incisor,  1  female.  Secondary  series:  crowding  of 
teeth,  1  male;  reduction  of  third  molars,  1  male. 

Thirteen  crania  had  shovel-shaped  incisors,  and  one  had  not. 
In  the  remainder  of  the  series  the  presence  or  absence  of  this 
feature  could  not  be  determined. 


120 


TURNER  GROUP  OF  EARTHWORKS 


Palate. 


T3 

_ 

a 

Cj 

m 

p 

Shape 

'o 

CJ 

cJ 

*cJ 

tt 

£ 

O 

Roof 

£ 

.2 

'3 

o 

.5? 

Torus 

C  1 

%  \ 

u  J 

a 

H-l 

w 

a 

Primary  series: 

Males . 

3 

3 

0 

0 

1 

5 

1 

t 

Females . 

2 

2 

3 

1 

4 

2 

4 

Secondary  series: 

Males . 

1 

4 

0 

0 

2 

3 

0 

t 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

Total:  number 

6 

9 

3 

1 

7 

10 

5 

li 

Determination  of  the  shape  of  the  palate  was  possible  in  a  few 
crania  only.  The  parabolic  type  seems  to  be  predominant  in  the 
males  of  the  secondary  series,  and  the  elliptical  type  seems  to  be 
confined  to  females.  The  roof  is  prevailingly  of  medium  height  in 
females  and  high  in  males.  A  slight  or  medium  development  of 
the  palatine  torus  is  common  in  the  female  crania. 

Skull  Base.  In  these  series  the  skull  base  is  usually  so  frag¬ 
mentary  that  few  observations  can  be  made.  In  the  primary 
series  of  females  it  was  ascertained  that  5  crania  had  small  styloid 
processes,  and  2  had  large  styloid  processes. 


Glenoid  Fossa  —  Depth 


Postglenoid  Process 


0 

Jj 

- 

C 

— 

"3 

a 

Cj 

CJ 

-3 

Ui 

<3 

72 

<5 

o 

O 

H 

-a 

< 

72 

c5 

>-} 

O 

H 

Primary  series: 

Males . 

2  i 

6 

5 

13 

3 

2 

7 

1 

13 

Females . 

2 

4 

3 

9 

4 

1 

3 

1 

9 

Secondary  series: 

Males . 

.  3 2 

2 

5 

10 

1 

4 

4 

1 

10 

Total:  number. . . 

7 

12 

13 

32 

8 

7 

14 

3 

32 

per  cent  .  . 

.  21. S 

37.5 

40.6 

25 

21.8 

43.7 

9.3 

The  glenoid  fossa  is  usually  deep  or  of  medium  depth  in  these 
series.  It  is  somewhat  shallower  in  the  females.  There  is  often 
a  moderate  postglenoid  process.  Apparently  this  feature  occurs 
more  frequently  in  long  heads  than  in  short  heads.  It  is  rarer  in 


1  Both  arthritic. 


1  One  arthritic. 


HAMILTON  COUNTY,  OHIO 


121 


females  than  in  males.  In  the  Madisonville  series  the  occurrence 
was  about  30  per  cent  in  males  and  only  10  per  cent  in  females. 

In  the  few  cases  where  the  lacerate  foramina  were  observed, 
they  were  small.  The  depression  of  the  petrous  portions  of  the 
temporal  bones  in  the  combined  males  and  females  of  the  primary 
series  is  as  follows:  2  slight,  5  medium,  2  pronounced;  in  the  males 
of  the  secondary  series,  1  absent,  2  medium. 

Pterygo-spinous  Foramina 

Incomplete  Incomplete  Complete  Complete 
Absent  one  side  both  sides  one  side  both  sides  Total 


Primary  series: 

Males .  5  0  1  0  0  6 

Females .  4  0  2  0  0  6 

Secondary  series: 

Males .  3  10  10  5 

Total .  12  1  3  1  0  17 


Pterygo-spinous  foramina  are  uncommon  in  these  crania. 

Dehiscences  in  the  Floor  of  the  Auditory  Meatus 

None  One  small  Two  small  One  medium  Total 


Primary  series: 

Males .  7  1  1  1  10 

Females .  5  0  1  0  6 

Secondary  series: 

Males . 8  0  0  0  8 

Total .  20  1  2  1  24 


Defects  in  the  floor  of  the  auditory  meatus  are  common  in  the 
primary  series  but  absent  from  the  secondary  series. 

Mandible. 


Size 


Mental  Prominence 


Small  Medium  Large  Total  None  Small  Medium  Large  Total 


Primary  series: 

Males .  264  12  0372  12 

Females .  3  4  2  9  1  3  4  1  9 

Secondary  series: 

Males .  343  10  0442  10 


Total .  8  14  9  31  1  10  15  5  31 


122 


MEASUREMENTS  OF  CRANIA  FROM  THE 


a. 

Catalogue  No. 

X 

O 

< 

Deformation 

bO 

Breadth 

‘o 

Cranial  Index 

5  H 

<5 

K. 

25 

J| 

.2 

'33 

Alvcon-Nasion 

Height  (5) 

Diam.  Bizygoma 

maxim,  (c) 

© 

N 

ixr 
£  ^ 

Facial  Index ,  wp 

(^100) 

Basion-Alveon  (. 

Basion-Nasion  (2 

A  731 

d 

old 

183 

136 

136 

74.32 

74.32 

100.00 

119 

72 

7 

? 

7 

101 

108 

A560 

d 

old 

— 

179 

(120) 

? 

(67.04) 

9 

9 

9 

7 

7 

7 

7 

7 

7 

30117 

d 

mid. 

— 

(175) 

139 

9 

(79.43) 

9 

9 

125 

80 

137 

91.24 

58.39 

7 

7 

A701 

d 

mid. 

— 

178 

140 

141 

78.65 

77.90 

99.29 

119 

73 

(131) 

(90.84) 

(55.73) 

102 

101 

A628 

d 

old 

med.  pm. 

185 

(153) 

151 

(82.70) 

81.63 

(98.69) 

(129) 

S2 

7 

7 

7 

100 

107 

A727 

d 

mid. 

— 

190 

140 

(147) 

73.68 

(77.37) 

(105.  ) 

? 

7 

7 

7 

7 

7 

7 

A  8 

d 

old 

— 

181 

144 

? 

79.56 

9 

9 

9 

7 

7 

7 

7 

7 

7 

A835 

d 

old 

si.  oec. 

182 

129 

? 

70.88 

? 

? 

9 

7 

7 

7 

7 

7 

7 

30116 

d 

mid. 

med.  pm. 

188 

(133) 

? 

70.74 

? 

? 

? 

7 

7 

7 

7 

7 

7 

34366 

d 

mid. 

si.  r.  occ. 

191 

139 

7 

72.77 

9 

9 

(138) 

(83) 

7 

7 

7 

7 

7 

a 

A541 

d 

mid. 

si.  lamb. 

191 

141 

? 

73.82 

9 

9 

9 

7 

7 

7 

7 

7 

7 

£ 

A4 

d 

y.  ad. 

— 

177 

135 

? 

76.27 

9 

9 

9 

7 

7 

7 

7 

7 

? 

W 

tfl 

»{ 

A  534 

d 

mid. 

— 

181 

(133) 

? 

(73.48) 

9 

7 

7 

7 

7 

7 

7 

< 

2 

A748 

9 

y.  ad. 

179 

138 

? 

77.07 

9 

9 

114 

69 

129 

88.37 

53.49 

7 

7 

aTI 

A  829 

9 

sub.  ad. 

— 

176 

139 

? 

78.98 

9 

? 

9 

7 

7 

7 

7 

7 

7 

A632 

9 

mid. 

— 

? 

9 

9 

? 

9 

7 

9 

7 

7 

7 

7 

7 

7 

A  627 

9 

mid. 

pm.  pron. 
si.  occ. 

(167) 

(147) 

? 

(88.54) 

? 

7 

114 

74 

(130) 

87.69 

(56.92) 

7 

7 

A  6 12 

9 

mid. 

med.  pm. 

176 

144 

142 

81.S2 

80.68 

101.41 

119 

75 

(136) 

87.50 

55.15 

(88) 

(98) 

A 16 

9 

mid. 

si.  occ. 

169 

141 

? 

83.43 

9 

7 

(115) 

70 

7 

7 

7 

7 

7 

A726 

9 

mid. 

— 

169 

131 

134 

77.51 

79.29 

97.76 

7 

7 

7 

7 

7 

7 

7 

58001 

9 

old 

si.  pm. 

186 

131 

? 

70.43 

? 

7 

7 

7 

7 

7 

7 

7 

7 

30137 

9 

mid. 

? 

? 

7 

? 

? 

? 

7 

7 

77 

7 

7 

7 

7 

7 

A  538 

9 

mid. 

— 

173 

132 

136 

76.30 

7S.61 

97.06 

7 

7 

7 

7 

7 

100 

103 

r 

32408 

d 

mid. 

med.  pm. 

177 

134 

7 

75.71 

? 

7 

137 

83 

139 

98.56 

59  71 

7 

7 

a 

32419 

d 

mid. 

— 

185 

136) 

? 

(73.51) 

? 

7 

7 

7 

7 

7 

7 

7 

7 

2 

32416 

d 

mid. 

— 

199 

135 

? 

67.84 

? 

? 

133 

77 

149 

89.26 

51  68 

? 

7 

cc 

32417 

d 

mid. 

— 

183 

145 

79.23 

? 

7 

122) 

73 

(144) 

(84.72) 

(50.69) 

7 

7 

u 

32415 

d 

old 

sl.  1.  occ. 

176 

137 

77.84 

? 

7 

7 

7 

7 

7 

7 

7 

7 

« 

D 

32412 

d 

mid. 

— 

186 

140 

75.27 

7 

7 

7 

7 

7 

7 

7 

7 

7 

£ 

h 

32410 

d 

old 

med.  occ. 

(170) 

(142) 

(152) 

(83.53)  (89.41 

(93.42) 

7 

(76) 

139 

7 

(54.68) 

98 

104 

32421 

d 

old 

med.  pm. 

(184) 

(132) 

? 

(71.74) 

7 

9 

(122) 

'I 

(128) 

(95.31) 

(55.47) 

7 

7 

0 

sl.  occ. 

>* 

£ 

32420 

d 

mid. 

med.  pm. 

(180) 

(136) 

(75.56) 

7 

7 

7 

7 

7 

7 

? 

7 

7 

a  : 

sl.  occ. 

0 

! 

A629 

d 

sub.  ad. 

sl.  pm. 

(173) 

124 

137 

(71.68)  (79.19) 

90.51 

7 

7 

7 

7 

7 

7 

7 

i 

A  633 

d 

old 

— 

185 

134 

7 

72.43 

7 

? 

? 

7 

7 

7 

7 

? 

7 

32411 

9? 

sub.  ad. 

— 

172 

126 

? 

73.26 

7 

7 

112 

7 

(122) 

(91.80) 

7 

7 

7 

KEY  TO  ABBREVIATION'S 


sub.  ad.  =  sub-adult  (19-20  yrs.). 
y.  ad.  =  young  adult  (21-35  yrs.). 
mid.  =  middle  aged  adult  (36-50  yrs.). 


old  =  old  adult  (51-  yrs.). 
si.  =  slight, 
med.  =  medium. 


TURNER  GROUP  OF  EARTHWORKS,  OHIO 


123 


d 

c 

yj 

c3 

a 

c3 

_o 

IS 

O 

R 

© 

* 

© 

W 

9 

I 

"3 

fl 

si  £ 

R 

oT^-s 
O  CQ 

*a 

9 

0) 

§ 

«  01 
> 

"a 

^2 
~x  a 

Diam.  Front 
minim. 

© 

bO 

s 

s 

c3 

S 

Angie  of  Lo> 
Jaw,  mean 

Height  of 
Symphysis 

» 

Orbits  — 
right,  lei 

sd 

Orbits  — 

© 

5 

(4 

L. 

Orbital  hide - 

Nose  Heighl 

Nose  Breach 

maxim. 

Nasal  Index 

|  Palate,  Exte 

Length  (1) 

Palate,  Exte 

Breadth,  me 

^ _ 

-5  ^  s 
m  ° 

S  w) 

S  9 

O  o 

O  W 

c 

.2 

c3 

55 

cJ 

tl 

< 

Capacity 

(Hrdlicka’s 

Thickness  o! 

Parietal  abo 

Suture 

kft. 

93.53 

91 

94 

? 

35 

? 

34 

? 

38 

89.47 

50 

26 

52 

54 

62 

114.81 

506 

372 

(1420) 

4.6 

? 

84 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

5 

? 

95 

116 

? 

37 

36 

37.5 

39 

41 

91.87 

54 

34 

62.96 

(60.5) 

(74) 

(122.31) 

(495) 

? 

? 

5 

100.99 

84 

88 

124 

39 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

50 

24 

48 

(62) 

(65) 

(104.84) 

505 

372 

? 

7.5 

93.46 

91 

? 

121 

40 

37 

36 

41 

39 

91.25 

59 

26.5 

44.92 

? 

? 

? 

534 

400 

(1580) 

6 

? 

93 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

532 

371 

? 

4.6 

? 

100 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

(530) 

? 

? 

4.6 

? 

91 

? 

? 

32 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

501 

? 

? 

3.3 

? 

94 

? 

124.5 

41 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

520 

? 

? 

5 

? 

90 

? 

122 

39 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

(56.5) 

25 

(44.25) 

56 

69 

123.21 

528 

382 

? 

4.3 

? 

100 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

536 

389 

? 

5 

? 

98 

? 

117 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

498 

? 

? 

5.3 

? 

? 

106 

119 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

(506) 

? 

? 

5 

? 

90 

96 

123 

34 

32 

32 

39 

38 

83.12 

46.5 

25 

53.76 

55 

65 

118.18 

500 

? 

? 

5 

? 

88 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

500 

? 

? 

4.6 

? 

97 

(100) 

? 

38 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

93 

? 

130 

34 

36 

? 

39 

? 

92.31 

? 

? 

? 

54 

61 

112.96 

(512) 

? 

? 

3.6 

(89.80) 

95 

96 

122 

34.5 

36.5 

36 

41.5 

42 

86.83 

54 

23.5 

43.52 

57 

67 

117.54 

507 

370 

? 

5.3 

? 

85 

? 

? 

35 

32 

32 

37.5 

36.5 

86.49 

51 

29 

56.86 

53 

66 

124.53 

494 

? 

? 

4 

? 

85 

95 

125 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

478 

349 

? 

5 

? 

92 

? 

122 

37 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

(510) 

(370) 

? 

6.3 

? 

91 

? 

? 

34 

37 

35 

40.5 

39 

90.57 

53 

22 

41.51 

54 

62 

114.81 

? 

? 

? 

? 

97.07 

89 

? 

? 

33 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

57 

64 

112.28 

486 

345 

? 

5 

? 

89 

95 

130 

43 

35 

35.5 

41 

37 

90.38 

53 

26 

49.06 

54 

64 

118.52 

496 

? 

? 

4 

? 

89 

112 

125 

37 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

56 

68 

121.43 

513 

? 

? 

5.3 

? 

100 

114 

125 

43 

34 

34 

44 

44 

77.27 

(53) 

(27) 

(50.94) 

61 

72 

118.03 

537 

? 

? 

5 

? 

91 

105 

? 

36 

36 

35 

39 

41 

88.75 

55 

27 

49.05 

55 

63 

114.55 

520 

360 

? 

4.6 

? 

93 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

497 

323 

? 

3 

? 

92 

113 

? 

36 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

3.6 

94.23 

98 

101 

126 

? 

35 

? 

41 

? 

85.37 

54 

26 

48.15 

? 

? 

? 

514 

380 

? 

5 

? 

95 

99 

130 

35 

? 

38 

? 

41 

? 

52 

26 

50 

? 

? 

? 

(518) 

400 

? 

? 

? 

92 

? 

116 

35 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

56 

65 

116.07 

(518) 

405 

? 

5 

? 

? 

? 

(122) 

31 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

325 

? 

4.6 

? 

96 

107 

113 

? 

? 

34.5 

? 

39.5 

87.34 

1. 

50 

24 

48' 

? 

? 

? 

518 

372 

? 

4.6 

? 

89 

90 

127 

32 

34.5 

36 

38 

? 

r. 

92.63 

(48) 

26 

(54.17) 

53 

62 

116.98 

482 

? 

? 

5 

KEY  TO  ABBREVIATIONS 

pron.  =  pronounced.  occ.  =  occipital, 

pm.  =  post-mortem.  lamb.  =  lambdoid. 

Parentheses  indicate  that  measurement  or  index  is  approximate 
because  of  defective  condition  or  because  of  deformation. 


124 


TURNER  GROUP  OF  EARTHWORKS 


Mylo-hyoid  Ridge  Genial  Tubercles 

Sub-  Pro- 

Absent  medium  Medium  nounced  Absent  Small  Medium  Total 


Primary  series: 

Males .  0  6  6  0  1  4  7  12 

Females .  1440  1719 

Secondary  series: 

Males .  0  3  6  1  0  6  4  10 

Total .  1  13  16  1  2  17  12  31 


The  size  distribution  of  mandibles  is  ordinary,  as  is  also  the 
development  of  the  mental  prominence.  Mylo-hyoid  ridges  and 
genial  tubercles  are  better  developed  in  this  series  than  in  the 
Madisonville  crania. 

Miscellaneous  and  Pathological.  Aside  from  one  or  two  small 

lesions  of  traumatic  origin  on  these  crania,  and  three  cases  of 
arthritis  affecting  the  glenoid  fossae,  there  is  nothing  of  interest  to 
report  in  the  way  of  pathological  features.  Caries  and  alveolar 
abscesses  have  been  dealt  with  above.  One  skull  of  the  secondary 
series  shows  two  small  exostoses  on  the  frontal  bone,  and  three 
have  slight  exostoses  in  the  auditory  meatus. 

In  six  crania  of  the  secondary  series,  nearly  circular  holes  have 
been  drilled,  as  discussed  by  Mr.  Willoughby  above  (p.  61). 
These  are  primarily  of  ethnological  rather  than  somatological 
interest.  They  were  evidently  bored  with  a  stone  drill.  The 
edges  are  clean  and  show  no  cicatrization.  The  following  are  the 
perforated  crania: 

No.  32410.  One  hole,  6  mm.  in  diameter  in  the  left  parietal,  46  mm.  back 
of  the  coronal  suture,  and  30  mm.  external  to  the  sagittal  suture. 

No.  32411.  Two  nearly  round  holes,  6  and  9  mm.  in  diameter,  one  in  the 
frontal  bone  3  mm.  in  front  of  bregma  and  a  little  to  the  left  of  it,  the  other 
in  the  right  parietal  5  mm.  back  of  the  coronal  suture  and  a  little  to  the  right 
of  bregma. 

No.  32412.  Two  holes,  each  6  mm.  in  diameter,  one  near  the  middle  of  the 
right  parietal,  the  other  in  approximately  the  same  position  in  the  left  parietal. 

No.  32413.  Two  holes  in  the  frontal  bone  5  mm.  in  diameter  and  35  mm. 
apart,  one  in  each  parietal  8  mm.  above  the  squamous  suture  and  30  mm. 
back  of  the  coronal  suture. 

No.  32414.  One  hole  in  each  parietal  bone,  symmetrically  placed. 

No.  32415.  Eleven  perforating  holes  and  one  unfinished  hole,  ranging  in 
diameter  from  3-6  mm.  Six  of  these  holes  are  disposed  in  pairs,  5-8  mm. 
between  each  member  of  a  pair  (plate  27). 


Peabody  Museum  Papers 


Vol.  VIII,  No.  3,  Plate  27 


Crania  with  perforations  (32415,  upper;  and  32411)  from  the  intrusive  pit  of  Mound  3. 


HAMILTON  COUNTY.  OHIO 


125 


Scaling  of  the  inner  table  of  the  skull  vault  at  the  points  of  per¬ 
foration  suggests  that  the  holes  were  made  when  the  skulls  were 
comparatively  dry.  All  of  the  crania  from  this  intrusive  pit  are 
green  and  fresh  in  comparison  with  the  dry.  chalky  bones  of  the 
primary  series. 

Bones  in  General.  The  skeletal  parts  other  than  the  crania 
are  few  in  number  and  fragmentary  in  condition. 

Femur. 

Measuhemevts 


Bicondylar  length 

Maximum  length 

Maximum  diameter 

Paired  bones 

Paired  bones 

of  bead 

Xo.  Right 

Left 

No.  Right 

Left 

Xo.  Right 

Left 

irom 

TTlTn 

mm 

mm. 

TT>m 

mm 

Primary  series: 

Males:  mean 

S  437.2 

43S.7 

8  440 

442.2 

14  46 

45.5 

Females:  mean 

6  431.3 

430.3 

6  435.3 

434 

8  41.5 

42.2 

The  number  of  paired  femora  is  unfortunately  small.  If  odd 
bones  are  taken  into  consideration,  the  mean  bicondylar  length  of 
10  right  femora  of  males  is  441.7  mm.  and  of  7  left  femora.  443.4 
mm.  The  maximum  length  of  7  left  femora  of  males  averages 
44S.8.  If  we  utilize  the  mean  bicondylar  length  of  the  10  right 
femora,  the  average  stature  for  10  males  according  to  Manou- 
vrier's  tables  is  165. S  cm.  and  according  to  Pearson's  formula  for 
oblique  length  1  164.8  cm. 

The  mean  bicondylar  lengths  for  paired  Madisonville  femora 
are  slightly  larger  >444  mm.  right.  447  mm.  left),  as  are  also  the 
maximum  lengths.  (449  mm.  right.  451  mm.  left).  The  average 
stature  of  Madisonville  males  is  estimated  to  be  166-167  cm. 

The  mean  bicondylar  length  of  5  right  femora  of  females  is 
430.8  nun.,  which  would  correspond  to  a  stature  of  somewhat 
more  than  158  cm.  according  to  Manouvrier.  and  to  a  stature  of 
157  cm.  according  to  Pearson.  The  mean  bicondylar  lengths  for 
Madisonville  females  are  410  mm.  and  419  mm.,  respectively 
for  right  and  left  sides.  The  estimated  stature  of  Madisonville 
females  is  155  cm. 

The  femoral  lengths  of  females  are  rather  high  in  comparison 
with  the  males.  This  is  partially  because  of  the  inclusion  in  the 
very  small  male  series  of  one  exceptionally  short  individual  whose 
bicondylar  femoral  lengths  were  only  513  mm.  and  515  mm. 

1  Pearson,  K.  and  BelL  J.,  A  Study  of  the  Long  Bones  of  the  English  Skeleton ,  Drapers’ 
Company  Research  Memoirs,  Biometric  Series  X,  London,  1919,  p.  5. 


126 


TURNER  GROUP  OF  EARTHWORKS 


The  femora  of  the  secondary  series  of  males  include  2  paired 
and  2  odd  only.  The  bicondylar  lengths  of  three  left  femora  are 
451  mm.,  468  mm.,  and  481  mm.  The  corresponding  maximum 
lengths  are  455  mm.,  475  mm.,  489  mm.  The  mean  bicondylar 
lengths  of  these  three  bones  is  466.6  mm.  and  of  maximum  lengths 
473  mm.  These  three  individuals  must  have  been  about  167,  170, 
and  172  cm.  in  stature.  The  largest  male  in  the  primary  series 
had  a  left  femur  with  bicondylar  and  maximum  lengths  of  461  mm. 
and  467  mm.,  respectively.  He  probably  had  a  stature  of  about 
168.5  cm.  It  is  scarcely  safe  to  attach  much  importance  to  the 
results  of  so  few  measurements  in  a  bone  individually  so  variable 
as  the  femur,  but  on  the  face  of  the  evidence,  such  as  it  is,  our 
secondary  series  of  males  must  have  been  somewhat  taller  than 
the  males  of  the  primary  series. 

The  difference  between  the  statures  of  males  and  females 
(7.8  cm.)  as  estimated  from  Pearson’s  formula  is  comparatively 
small.  The  females  are  estimated  at  157  cm.  in  stature  and  the 
males  at  164.8  cm.  The  sex  ratio  is  unreasonably  low  (1.049). 
The  maximum  diameters  of  the  femoral  heads  average  for  rights, 
46  mm.  in  males  and  41.5  mm.  in  females;  and  for  lefts,  45.5  mm. 
and  42.2  mm.  For  Madisonville  femora  the  head  diameters  are  as 
follows:  right,  males  47.2,  females  43.6;  left,  males  46.7,  females 
42.3.  The  sex  differences  in  this  feature  are  more  pronounced  in 
the  Turner  series  than  in  the  Madisonville  series.  According  to 
Pearson  1  the  mean  percentage  reduction  of  the  diameter  of  the 
male  femoral  head  necessary  to  obtain  that  of  the  female  femoral 
head  in  the  English  femur  is  about  12.7.  In  our  series  the  differ¬ 
ence  on  the  right  side  is  10.2  per  cent  and  on  the  left  side  only 
7.2  per  cent.  In  the  males  the  right  femora  are  longer  and  have 
larger  heads,  but  in  the  females  the  reverse  is  the  case.  On  the 
whole  the  writer  is  inclined  to  believe  that  the  male  series  of 
femora  is  not  a  representative  sample  in  that  it  includes  too  many 
small  bones.  If  this  hypothesis  is  rejected  we  are  reduced  to 
two  alternatives:  (a)  that  sexual  differences  in  the  size  of  the 
femora  are  unusually  small  in  this  series,  or  ( b )  that  the  present 
writer  has  made  serious  errors  in  sexing  the  material.  The  writer 
has  had  a  good  deal  of  experience  in  anatomical  sexing  of  skeletal 
material  and  has  a  fair  degree  of  confidence  in  his  own  accuracy. 


1  Op.  cit.,  p.  145. 


HAMILTON  COUNTY,  OHIO  127 

Mf.au  Shaft  Diameters  and  Indices  'Paired  Bones 
Subtrochanteric  region  ^Middle  of  shaft 


-1 

11 

"X 

Plaiymerie 
mdes 
(a)  X  100 

•t 

J-3 

f| 

Middle 
index 
fd)  X  100 

Z 

Z  E  S 

z  -a 

' 

Z 

—  X  ^ 

z3 

(e) 

mm. 

ram 

mm. 

mm. 

Primary  series: 

Males:  right 

8 

25.2 

31.5 

80.5 

9 

30.4 

24.9 

81.8 

“  left 

8 

25.3 

31.4 

80.5 

9 

30.6 

25.2 

82.3 

Females:  right 

5 

23.3 

30.5 

76.2 

6 

27.4 

24.3 

89 

“  left 

5 

24 

31.2 

76.8 

6 

27.7 

24.5 

89.8 

The  table  above 

shows 

that 

the  males  of 

the 

primary 

series 

are  but  slightly  platymeric.  and  the  females  somewhat  more  so. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  middle  index  shows  a  pronounced  develop¬ 
ment  of  the  pilaster  in  the  males,  and  a  less  developed  pilaster  in 
the  females.  Madisonville  femora  are  much  more  platymeric  in 
both  sexes  fright,  males  77.1,  females  72.6;  left,  males  76.7, 
females,  75.5).  The  Madisonville  femora  also  have  much  higher 
middle  indices  fright,  males  92.1.  females  94;  left,  males  89.2, 
females  95.7). 

Mean  Diameter  of  Femce  at  Middle  of  Shaft 

Turner  Group  Madisonville  Mousse  HrdHcta ) 


ram  mm  mm 

Males:  right .  27.6  28.2  27.3 

“  left .  27.9  28.5  27.5 

Females:  right .  25.8  24.1  24.6 

c  left .  26.1  25.6  24.3 


The  males  of  the  Madisonville  series  exceed  the  males  of  the 
Turner  Group  series  in  mean  diameter  of  the  femoral  shaft  at 
the  middle,  but  the  females  of  the  Turner  Group  exceed  the 
Madisonville  females  in  this  diameter. 

The  shape  of  the  shaft  is  prismatic  in  10  males  and  quadrilateral 
in  2  males.  In  6  females  it  is  prismatic.  The  development  of  the 
linea  aspera  is  as  follows:  submedium.  3  males,  4  females;  me¬ 
dium.  6  males,  2  females;  pronounced.  3  males,  no  females.  It  is 
submedium  in  25  per  cent  of  males  and  in  66.6  per  cent  of  females, 
and  medium  in  50  per  cent  of  males  and  in  33.3  per  cent  of  females. 
The  linea  aspera  is.  on  the  whole,  better  developed  in  this  series 
than  in  the  Madisonville  series. 


128 


TURNER  GROUP  OF  EARTHWORKS 


Third  Trochanter 

Ridge  Fossa  Tuber-  Ridge  and  Total 

Small  Medium  Large  Small  Medium  Large  osity  tuberosity 

Primary  series: 

Males  ....  4  2  0  1  1  2  2  0  12 

Females...  2100000  1  4 

The  third  trochanter  in  some  form  appears  in  all  of  the  males, 
and  4  of  6  females.  In  one  female  it  is  absent,  and  in  one  the 
subtrochanteric  region  is  defective. 

Bowing  of  the  shaft  is  submedium  in  one  male,  medium  in  8 
males,  and  pronounced  in  3  males.  It  is  submedium  in  3  females, 
medium  in  1  female,  and  pronounced  in  1  female. 

Torsion  is  slight  in  3  males,  medium  in  4  males,  and  pronounced 
in  4  males;  slight  in  2  females,  medium  in  2,  and  pronounced  in 
2  others. 

A  medium  or  submedium  development  of  Poiret’s  facet  on  the 
femoral  neck  is  present  in  2  males  and  3  females. 

Tibia. 

Measurements 


Number 

Mean  length 
(minus  spine) 
mm. 

Mean  middle  diameters 
Antero-posterior  Lateral 
(a)  (b) 

Middle  index 
( b )  X  100 

(«) 

Primary  series: 

Males:  right,  paired 

4 

373 

32.2 

22.2 

67 

“  left,  “ 

4 

309 

32.2 

23 

68.3 

Females,  right,  paired 

3 

31.3 

20.1 

64.3 

“  left, 

3 

355.6 

29.6 

19.6 

66.3 

The  number  of  tibiae  available  for  measurement  is  so  small  as 
to  be  hardly  worthy  of  consideration.  The  mean  length  of  rights 
and  lefts  for  males  (371  mm.)  would  give  a  stature  of  166.6,  using 
Pearson’s  formula.  The  mean  length  of  3  female  left  tibiae,  ac¬ 
cording  to  the  formula  for  females,  yields  a  stature  of  158.4  cm. 
These  are  somewhat  higher  than  the  statures  calculated  from  the 
femora.  On  the  showing  of  these  few  specimens  the  males  of 
our  series  have  somewhat  shorter  tibiae  and  the  females  some¬ 
what  longer  tibiae  than  those  of  the  Madisonville  series  (males 
376.4  mm.,  females,  347.2  mm.). 

The  mean  tibio-femoral  index  on  6  odd  pairs  of  male  bones, 
both  sides,  is  84.25,  and  on  3  female  pairs,  83.4.  These  indices 
are  about  the  same  as  those  given  by  Dr.  Hrdlicka  for  Munsee 


HAMILTON  COUNTY,  OHIO 


129 


and  Louisiana  Indians  (tibio-femoral  index:  males,  Munsee  84.45, 
Louisiana,  84.25;  females,  Munsee  83.7,  Louisiana,  83.9). 1 
Madisonville  males  average  83.1,  and  Madisonville  females  83.8. 

The  middle  diameters  and  the  middle  index  show  considerably 
more  flattening  than  the  Madisonville  tibiae. 

The  shape  of  the  shaft  is  quite  variable.  Prismatic  and  lateral 
prismatic  types,  quadrilateral  types,  and  the  type  with  the  ex¬ 
ternal  surface  concave  occur. 

The  head  of  the  tibia  shows  a  slight  backward  inclination  in 
10  bones,  a  medium  inclination  in  3  bones,  and  a  pronounced  in¬ 
clination  in  one  bone.  The  external  condyle  is  slightly  convex 
antero-posteriorly  in  7  bones,  and  concave  in  4  bones.  Slight 
“  squatting  facets  ”  on  the  anterior  lip  of  the  inferior  articular 
surface  are  found  in  5  female  bones  and  2  male  bones,  and  well- 
marked  facets  on  4  male  bones. 

The  tibiae  of  one  female  are  “boomerang ’’-shaped,  and  show 
inflammatory  thickenings  in  the  middle  portions  of  the  shafts. 
Similar  inflammatory  thickenings  occur  in  the  middle  portions 
of  the  shafts  of  two  other  pairs  of  female  tibiae.  These  bilateral 
tibial  lesions  are  very  common  in  Indian  bones,  especially  those 
of  females.  One  male  tibia  shows  an  arthritic  condition  of  the 
superior  articular  surfaces. 

Other  Long  Bones.  Fibulae,  and  long  bones  of  the  upper  ex¬ 
tremity  are  too  few  in  number  in  this  collection  to  merit  attention. 

Vertebrae.  Nothing  unusual  was  observed  in  the  spines  of  this 
collection.  They  are  mostly  incomplete  and  fragmentary.  In 
two  male  specimens  it  was  possible  to  secure  the  vertical  lumbar 
index,  which  in  one  was  96.4  or  kurtorachic,  and  in  the  other 
102.9  or  koilorachic. 

Pelvis. 

Pelvis  as  a  Whole 


Superior  strait 


Primary  series: 

Breadth 

maximum 

mm. 

Breadth 

maximum 

(a) 

mm. 

Diameter 

antero-posterior 

(b) 

mm. 

Brim  index 
(f>)  X  100 

(a) 

Males:  No.  A  778 

298 

141 

124 

87.94 

“  No.  A  628 

294 

124 

100 

80.65 

Females:  No.  A  612 

309 

149 

109 

73.15 

1  Op.  cit.,  p.  69. 


130 


TURNER  GROUP  OF  EARTHWORKS 


Mean  height  of  Distance  between  Pelvic 

innominate  bones  ischiatic  spines  index 


mm.  mm. 

Males:  No.  A  778 .  219.5  91  73.65 

“  No.  A  628 .  208  88  70.74 

Females:  No.  A  612 .  208  ?  67.31 


Only  3  pelves  are  available  for  measurement.  Two  of  these  are 
male  and  one  female.  They  are  all  exceptionally  large  and  capa¬ 
cious  pelves  for  Indians.  Especially  remarkable  is  the  great  breadth 
between  the  iliac  crests  (outer  lips).  The  total  pelvic  indices  are 
extremely  low  because  of  this  great  width.  The  brim  indices  are 
all  platypellic. 

Sexual  characters  in  these  and  in  4  other  pelves  upon  which 
observations  could  be  made  are  well  marked.  In  the  males  the 
ischiatic  notch  is  narrow  in  3  cases,  and  medium  in  1  case;  the 
preauricular  sulcus  is  absent  in  2,  and  2  others  show  slight  traces; 
and  the  sub-pubic  angle  is  small  in  2  and  medium  in  1.  In  the 
pelves  of  4  females  the  ischiatic  notch  is  in  every  case  wide,  the 
preauricular  sulcus  is  broad  and  deep  in  3,  medium  in  1 ;  and  the 
sub-pubic  angles  are  great  in  the  2  in  which  this  feature  could  be 
observed . 

Age  changes  in  the  pubic  symphysis  seem  to  conform  in  general 
with  those  established  for  male  whites  by  Professor  T.  Wingate 
Todd.1  The  present  writer  is  not  confident  of  his  ability  to  dis¬ 
criminate  correctly  between  all  the  10  phases  which  Todd  recog¬ 
nizes,  but  in  so  far  as  he  has  been  able  to  distinguish  these  phases 
they  seem  to  correspond  fairly  accurately  with  the  age  estimates 
based  upon  other  skeletal  characters.  Two  male  pelves  were 
classified  as  phases  8  (age  39-44)  and  9  (age  45-50)  respectively; 
and  2  female  pelves  as  phases  2  (20-21)  and  9.  One  of  the  males, 
who  had  a  phase  8  symphysis,  was,  however,  judged  to  be  old  (over 
50  years) . 

Summary.  The  crania  of  the  primary  series  from  the  Turner 
Group  show  very  slight  occipital  deformation  in  5  of  21  specimens. 
In  the  secondary  or  intrusive  series  of  13  crania,  3  display  slight 
occipital  flattening,  and  one  a  medium  occipital  deformation.  The 
males  of  the  primary  series  are  dolichocephalic  in  58.3  per  cent  of 

1  Todd,  T.  Wingate,  Age  Changes  in  the  Pubic  Bone,  /,  The  Male  White  Pubis,  American 
Journal  of  Physical  Anthropology,  Vol.  Ill,  &o.  3,  1920,  p.  313  sq. 


HAMILTON  COUNTY,  OHIO 


131 


cases,  mesocephalic  in  25  per  cent,  and  brachycephalic  in  16.6 
per  cent.  The  females  show  higher  proportions  of  mesocephals 
and  brachycephals.  The  males  of  the  secondary  series  are  half 
dolichocephals  and  half  mesocephals,  with  one  brachycephalic 
deformed  cranium  excluded.  The  male  crania  of  both  series  are 
hypsicephalic,  except  one  orthocephal.  Most  of  the  cranial 
dimensions  are  moderate,  but  the  minimum  frontal  diameter  is 
extremely  small  in  both  series  and  in  both  sexes.  The  facial 
skeletons  are  mostly  long  and  narrow  in  all  of  the  series;  none 
is  short  and  broad.  Nasal  indices  are  prevailingly  leptorrhine 
in  the  males,  and  half  leptorrhine  and  half  mesorrhine  in  the 
females.  The  orbits  are  mostly  high  in  relation  to  breadth  in 
the  primary  series,  but  variable  in  the  secondary  series.  There 
is  very  little  prognathism. 

A  narrow,  low,  and  rounded  frontal  region  is  a  marked  char¬ 
acteristic  of  most  of  the  Turner  Group  crania  of  both  series.  The 
primary  series  differs  from  the  secondary  series  in  that  the  former 
has  the  sagittal  elevation  more  strongly  developed.  The  tem¬ 
poral  region  is  flat  in  both  series  of  males  and  more  convex  in  the 
females.  All  series  show  predominantly  medium  convex  occiputs 
with  little  development  of  an  occipital  torus.  The  serration  of 
sutures  tends  to  be  medium  in  the  primary  series,  but  simple  in 
the  secondary  series.  Brow  ridges  are  generally  small  or  medium 
in  both  series  of  males,  and  relatively  undeveloped  in  the  females. 
High  and  narrow  noses  seem  to  be  prevalent  in  the  males  of  the 
secondary  series,  and  all  varieties  in  the  primary  series. 

The  suborbital  fossae  are  prevailingly  medium  or  shallow,  the 
malars  and  zygomae  are  medium  or  large,  but  larger  in  the  sec¬ 
ondary  series.  The  teeth  are  in  general,  good,  and  show  few  ab¬ 
normalities.  Shovel-shaped  incisors  are  characteristically  present. 
The  palate  is  U-shaped  or  parabolic  in  the  males,  and  both  of 
these  forms  as  well  as  the  elliptical  form,  occur  in  females.  A 
medium  or  deep  glenoid  fossa  with  a  moderately  developed  post¬ 
glenoid  process  is  usual  in  all  of  the  groups,  but  the  process  is  more 
often  lacking  in  the  females.  The  mandibles  are  moderately 
developed. 

The  males  of  the  primary  series  seem  to  have  been  of  medium 
stature,  165-166  cm.,  but  the  females  are  rather  tall  (157  cm.). 
The  muscular  development  of  the  long  bones  of  the  primary  series 


132 


TURNER  GROUP  OF  EARTHWORKS 


is  in  general  moderate.  Very  few  pathological  conditions  were 
observed  in  the  study  of  this  collection. 

The  primary  series  differs  from  the  secondary  or  intrusive  series 
in  many  details.  The  former  includes  a  brachycephalic  element 
which  is  lacking  in  the  secondary  series,  while  the  secondary 
series  contains  the  one  cranium  which  gives  evidence  of  having 
been  submitted  to  intentional  occipital  deformation.  In  most  of 
the  observed  and  measured  characters  there  are  differences  between 
the  two  series  which  are  possibly  significant,  but  both  series  are 
so  short  that  positive  conclusions  are  impossible.  In  the  opinion 
of  the  writer,  the  intrusive  or  secondary  series  probably  repre¬ 
sents  a  separate  but  allied  Indian  group,  possibly  a  neighboring 
tribe.  The  primary  and  secondary  series  resemble  each  other 
much  more  closely  than  either  resembles  the  Madisonville  series. 

It  may  be  said  positively  that  the  people  of  the  Turner  Group 
show  practically  no  physical  affinities  with  the  people  who  lived 
on  the  Madisonville  site,  beyond  those  which  are  common  to  all 
Indians.  The  affinities  of  the  Turner  Group  people  are  rather 
with  the  Eastern  dolichocephals,  although  there  is  present  a 
brachycephalic  element  such  as  is  often  found  also  among  the 
Eastern  Indians.  The  Madisonville  people  were  mostly  brachy¬ 
cephalic  and  deformed,  while  the  Turner  Group  people  were 
mostly  dolichocephalic  and  without  cranial  deformation.  The 
Madisonville  people  had  short  broad  faces  and  short  broad  noses; 
most  of  the  Turner  Group  people  seem  to  have  had  long  narrow 
faces  and  long  narrow  noses.  The  muscular  development  of  the 
Turner  Mound  people  was  superior  to  that  of  the  Madisonville 
people,  especially  as  regards  the  bones  of  the  lower  extremity,  but 
the  Madisonville  males  seem  to  have  been  slightly  taller  than 
those  of  the  neighboring  but  older  group. 

The  collection  from  the  Turner  Group  is  small,  but  sufficiently 
homogeneous  to  afford  hope  that  it  may  be  a  representative 
sample  of  the  people  who  were  responsible  for  the  remarkable 
culture  which  Mr.  Willoughby  has  described. 


